Chapter 5 & 6

A Priori Statement

A statement that can be known to be true or false on the basis of logic and reasoning alone, prior to experience. The statement “All squares have four sides is *A priori.* If a claim is known a priori to be true it is acceptable as a premise in an argument

A posteriori Statement

A statement cannot be known to be true or false on the basis of logic and reasoning alone. it requires experience or evidence

Authority

one who has specialized knowledge of a subject and is recognized to be am expert on that subject

Begging the Question

A fallacy that occurs when one or more premises either state the conclusion or presuppose that the conclusion is true

Common Knowledge

A statement that is known by most people it is widely believed by more people and against which there is no known evidence

Faulty to appeal to authority

Argument based on authority in which one or more of the conditions of proper appeal to authority are not met

Provisional Acceptance of Conclusion

Acceptance of a conclusion because it is related, by proper reasoning, to premises that have been provisionally accepted. In such a case, the conclusion can be said to be provisionally established: if the premises are acceptable, the conclusion is acceptable too

Provisional Acceptance of Premises

Tentative supposition of premises in a context where there is no special basis for regarding them as unacceptable

Testimony

Typically, statements based on personal experience or personal knowledge. A statement is accepted on the basis of a person’s testimony if his or her asserting it renders it acceptable

Ad Baculum Fallacy

A fallacy committed when premises express or evoke fear, with the implication that a conclusion should be accepted because otherwise bas things will happen. ex.) “you better accept our religion or you will burn in hell”

Ad Hominem Fallacy

A fallacy committed when an irrelevant premise about the background, personality, or character of a person is given in an attempt to show that the person’s claims or argument are false or unacceptable ex.) “he is old and ugly, so his theory should not be accepted”

Ad Misericordiam

A fallacy committed when premises express and evoke pity, with the implication that a conclusion should be accepted because someone is in a pitiful state. ex.) “You should give me an A because otherwise I will not get into law school”

Burden of Proof

Obligation, or duty, to support one’s claims by argument and evidence. The burden of proof us usually said to rest on the party introducing that needs proof.

Emotional Appeal

Use of emotion in language or imagery in such a way as to simulate feelings and avoid the need to give reasons and evidence to support a belief or a conclusion to the effect that some action should be undertaken.

Fallacious appeal to ignorance

Argument in which there is either an appeal to our ignorance about S in an attempt to show that not-S is true or probable, or an appeal to our ignorance about not-S in an attempt to show that S is true or probable. Ex.) “Angels exist, because no one has ever proven they don’t’”

Fallacious appeal to popularity

A fallacy in which one reasons from the popularity of a product or belief to a conclusion about its actual merits. Ex.) “Polka dots are back in fashion this year, so you should buy polka dot fabric”

Fallacious Appeal to Tradition

A fallacy in which one reasons from the fact that a practice, action, or belief has been common in the past to a conclusion about its merit in the present. Ex.) “We should have a picnic August long weekend because we have always done this”

Guilt by Association Fallacy

A fallacy committed when a person or a person’s views are criticized on the basis of a supposed link between them and a person or movement believed to be disreputable. Ex.) “This is a socialist position, put forward by a radical, so it must be wrong”

Irrelevance

A statement is irrelevant to the truth of another statement if and only if it’s truth or falsity neither counts ion favour of the truth of that other statement nor counts toward that others statement’s being false. If the truth of one statement is irrelevant to the truth of another, it is neither positively relevant to it nor negatively relevant to it.

Negative Relevance

A statement is negatively relevant to the truth of another statement if and only if its truth would give some reason or evidence for the falsity of that other statement. That is, iof the first statement were true that would count in favour of the second one being false.

Non Sequitur

An argument in which the premise has no bearing on the conclusion

Positive Relevance

A statement is positively relevant to the truth of another statement if and only if its truth would give some evidence or reason to support the truth of that other statement. That is, if the first statement were true, that would count in favour of the second one being true.

Reconstructed Argument

A argument in which the inferences (or steps) have been made more orderly, logical, and sensible by the addition of extra premises.

Red Herring

A premise or remark that is irrelevant to the conclusion or issue being discussed, so that it tends to distract people and lead them away from the topic at issue.

Straw Man Fallacy

A fallacy committed when a person misrepresents an argument, theory, or claim and then on the basis of that misrepresentation, claims to have refuted the position the person has misinterpreted.

Tu Quoque Fallacy

A fallacy committed when it is alleged that an arguer has a fault similar to the one he or she is criticizing and then on the basis of that allegation, it is inferred that the criticism can be dismissed. Ex.) Doctor that smokes cannot be correct in warning that smoking has adverse effects on one’s health