APP History and Approaches Vocab 2

Modules 4-8

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

social desirability bias

tendency to provide socially desirable rather than honest answers on questionnaires

population

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

stratified sample

a sample drawn in such a way that known subgroups within a population are represented in proportion to their numbers in the general population

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

correlation coefficient

mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1. (same as r-value)

r-value

mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1. (same as correlation coefficient)

line of best fit/regression line

a smooth line that reflects the general pattern in a graph

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable); aim to control other relevant factors

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the participant is receiving treatment or placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent

Hawthorne effect

the tendency for people to behave differently when they know they are being studied.

experimental condition

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control condition

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

confounding variable

any factor that affects the dependent variable, along with or instead of the independent variable

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

mode

the most frequent value of a random variable

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

measures of variation

range and standard deviation

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

z-score

The number of standard deviations a value (x) is above or below the mean set of numbers.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

t-test

statisical way of determining if, in an experiment, the difference between the experimental and control conditions is statistically significant (result is the p value)

p-value

the probability level which forms the basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance); if less than or equal to 0.5, causation can be inferred

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Kenneth B. and Mamie Phipps Clark

studied the effects of segregation and racism on the self-esteem of black children. Their work was used in testimony in the case of Brown V. The Board of Education

informed consent

informing research participants of what is involved in a study before asking them to participate

descriptive statistics

numerical characterizations that describe data

inferential statistics

set of mathematical procedures that help researchers learn if their research data reflects a true relationship or could be due to random chance

generalizability

the extent to which a study can be applied to the intended population

coercion

forcing a subject to participate in a study

debriefing

a procedure to inform participants about the true nature of an experiment after its completion

skewed distribution

an asymmetrical but generally bell-shaped distribution, the result of one or more outliers; tends to pull the mean, resulting in the median being a better indication of central tendency

normal curve

the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to