Biology: Macromolecules, Enzymes, and Nucleic Acid Structures

Macromolecule

A large molecule composed of thousands of atoms.

Polymer

A substance composed of large molecules formed by the bonding of many smaller units called monomers.

Monomer

A small, basic molecular unit that can join together to form polymers.

Enzymes

Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms.

Dehydration Synthesis Reaction

A chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule from the reacting molecule, and then the bonding of the two monomers.

Hydrolysis

A chemical process that splits a molecule by adding water.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically in a ratio of 1:2:1.

Monosaccharides

The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar molecule.

Dissacharides

Carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides linked together.

Glycosidic Linkage

The bond formed between two monosaccharides during a dehydration reaction.

Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides.

Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting of a large number of glucose units.

Glycogen

A storage polysaccharide in animals, composed of glucose units.

Cellulose

A structural polysaccharide in plants that provides rigidity to cell walls.

Lipids

A diverse group of hydrophobic molecules that include fats, oils, and steroids.

Fatty Acids (FAs)

Building blocks of lipids, consisting of long hydrocarbon chains.

Saturated FAs

Fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms.

Unsaturated FAs

Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.

Phospholipid

A lipid containing a phosphate group, which forms the bilayer of cell membranes.

Steroid

A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.

Catalyst

A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed.

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

Protein

A functional biological macromolecule composed of one or more polypeptides.

Amino acid

The building blocks of proteins, consisting of an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain.

Peptide bond

The covalent bond formed between two amino acids during protein synthesis.

Primary structure

The unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Secondary structure

The local folding of a polypeptide chain into structures such as alpha helices and beta sheets.

Tertiary structure

The overall three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide, determined by interactions among various side chains.

Quaternary structure

The structure formed by the assembly of multiple polypeptide chains into a single functional unit.

Denaturation

The process in which proteins lose their structure and function due to external stress or conditions.

Gene

A segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a protein.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid, a molecule involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation.

Nucleotide

The basic building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Pyrimidine

A type of nitrogenous base with a single-ring structure, including cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

Purine

A type of nitrogenous base with a double-ring structure, including adenine and guanine.

Double helix

The structure formed by two strands of DNA wound around each other.

Antiparallel

Describes the orientation of the two strands of DNA, running in opposite directions.

Phosphodeister bond

A covalent bond between Nucleic Acids

Glycosidic linkage

A covalent bonds that forms between the monomers of carbs

Carbs ratio of atoms

1:2:1 (OHC)

Lipids ratio of atoms

1:2:few (CHO)

Elements of proteins

CHONS

Elements of Nucleic Acids

CHONP

Functional groups in Nucleic Acids

Phosphate Groups

Functional groups in Proteins

Amino, Carboxyl Groups

Functional Groups in Lipids

Carboxyl, Phosphate Groups

Functional Groups in Carbs

Hydroxyl, carbonyl groups

Polymers of Carbs

Glycogen, Starch (amylase), cellulose

Functions of Carbs

Structure, Storage, quick energy

Functions of Lipids

Long term energy storage, insulation, protection

Functions of Proteins

Dry mass, transport, immunity…

Functions of Nucleic Acids

Quick energy, stores genetic info to build proteins

Saturated Fatty Acids

Single bonds, straight chains, solids at room temp, animal products

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Double bonded, bent chains, liquids at room temp, plant product