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Political: Type and Structure of Government
Centralized authority under an emperor. The Senate played a significant advisory role but diminished over time.
Leaders (Roman Empire)
Key figures: Augustus (first emperor), Julius Caesar (dictator), and Nero (notorious emperor).
Law System (Roman Empire)
Roman law codified in the Twelve Tables and later legal compilations. Principles of justice and citizenship rights were foundational.
Documents (Roman Empire)
Various legal texts, including the Twelve Tables and the Corpus Juris Civilis.
Basis for Citizenship (Roman Empire)
Initially limited to free men in Rome; expanded to provinces over time. Citizenship grants rights and privileges, including legal protection.
Type and Structure of Government (Byzantine Empire)
Centralized authority under the emperor, seen as God's representative. Bureaucracy managed various aspects of governance.
Leaders (Byzantine Empire)
Justinian I (notable for legal reforms) and Empress Theodora (influential advisor).
Law System (Byzantine Empire)
Justinian's Code (Corpus Juris Civilis) standardized and unified legal codes.
Documents (Byzantine Empire)
Codex Justinianus and Digest.
Basis for Citizenship (Byzantine Empire)
Citizenship included legal status and participation in civic duties, but was more restricted than in the Roman Republic.
Type and Structure of Government (Holy Roman Empire)
A decentralized authority with a complex structure of kings, princes, and local lords. The emperor's power varied significantly based on the support of the nobility.
Leaders (Holy Roman Empire)
Charlemagne (expanded and consolidated power) and Clovis (early unifier of the Franks).
Law System (Holy Roman Empire)
Combination of customary laws and feudal law, varying by region.
Documents (Holy Roman Empire)
Various charters and feudal contracts.
Basis for Citizenship (Holy Roman Empire)
Local lordships granted citizenship rights, tied to land ownership and loyalty.
Mutual Obligations (Feudalism)
In feudal systems, lords granted land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for loyalty and military service. Vassals provided protection and governance for serfs working the land.
Central vs. Decentralized Authority
The Roman Empire centralized power under an emperor. The Byzantine Empire maintained central control while adapting to challenges. The Holy Roman Empire exemplified decentralized authority, with significant local autonomy.
Power Vacuum
Following the fall of the Roman Empire, Europe experienced a power vacuum leading to the rise of feudalism as local lords gained power.
Deity/Higher Power
Central focus on the Christian God, often represented as a Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit). The Church's doctrine shaped medieval religious life, with God seen as both protector and judge.
Rules of Behavior
Christians followed biblical commandments and Church teachings. These included moral and ethical rules, such as the Ten Commandments. Church-imposed rules governed not only personal behavior but also broader societal norms.
Sacred Text
The Bible (Old and New Testaments) was the central sacred text, with the New Testament focusing on the teachings of Jesus.
Rituals
Key rituals included sacraments like baptism, communion (Eucharist), confession, and marriage. Festivals like Easter and Christmas were major religious celebrations.
Philosophy
Medieval philosophy was influenced by Christian theology, with figures like St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas exploring the relationship between faith and reason.
Monastery
A religious community where monks renounced worldly possessions to live a life of prayer and devotion. Monasteries were often self-sufficient, with monks engaging in farming, copying manuscripts, and providing social services.
Convent
Similar to monasteries, but for nuns. Nuns took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, dedicating themselves to religious life.
Secular
Refers to worldly matters, separate from religious or spiritual concerns. The secular world was controlled by kings, nobles, and political figures, often in tension with the Church's influence.
Tithe
A religious tax where people gave one-tenth of their earnings or produce to support the Church. It was a significant source of income for the medieval Church and clergy.
Clergy
The body of religious officials in the Christian Church, including priests, bishops, and the Pope. Clergy were responsible for performing sacraments, guiding the spiritual life of communities, and maintaining Church doctrines.
Church Hierarchy
Pope (supreme authority), Cardinals, Archbishops, Bishops, and Priests. Each level had distinct roles and responsibilities. This hierarchy governed the Church's operations and ensured uniformity of doctrine and practice across Christendom.
St. Benedict
Founder of the Benedictine Order and creator of the Rule of St. Benedict, which set guidelines for monastic life. His rule emphasized discipline, prayer, and manual labor, shaping monastic life for centuries.
Papal Authority
The Pope held supreme religious authority in the Christian world, often intervening in political matters. Papal decrees could influence kings and emperors, establishing the Pope as a central figure in medieval Europe.
Pope Leo III
Crowned Charlemagne as 'Emperor of the Romans' in 800 AD, reinforcing the bond between the Church and the emerging Holy Roman Empire. His actions helped define the Pope's role in legitimizing secular rulers.
Pope Gregory I
Reformed the Church and expanded its influence, both spiritually and politically. Known for sending missionaries to convert the English and for organizing the early medieval Church.
Lay Investiture Controversy
A conflict between the Church and secular rulers over the appointment of bishops and abbots. Secular rulers wanted the power to appoint church officials, while the Church insisted that only the Pope could do so. This struggle came to a head between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV, eventually leading to the Concordat of Worms (1122), which resolved the dispute.
Literature
Major works included Dante's Divine Comedy and Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, which reflected the social and religious values of the time. Written primarily in Latin, though vernacular literature began to emerge.
Art
Religious themes dominated medieval art, especially in the form of illuminated manuscripts, church frescoes, and stained glass windows. Gothic and Romanesque architecture also defined this period, especially in cathedrals.
Music
Gregorian chants were the predominant form of religious music, characterized by simple, monophonic melodies. Secular music was also common, performed by troubadours and minstrels.
Mass Communication
The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century revolutionized communication, making books more accessible.
Medieval science
A blend of ancient knowledge and Christian theology, with advancements in alchemy, medicine, and natural philosophy.
Technological innovations
Included the heavy plow, water mills, and advancements in shipbuilding.
Trade routes
Expanded across Europe, with better ships like the caravel allowing for longer voyages.
Chivalry
A code of conduct for knights emphasizing bravery, honor, loyalty, and courtesy, especially toward women and the weak.
Medieval warfare
Relied on cavalry, infantry, and siege tactics, with castles and fortified towns central to defense.
Cavalry charges
Key to military strategy, with knights on horseback leading the attack.
Primary weapons
Included swords, lances, bows, and crossbows.
Siege engines
Such as catapults and battering rams, were used to breach castle walls during sieges.
Knights
Formed the backbone of medieval armies, with feudal obligations ensuring military service from vassals.
Natural features
Used by armies for defense, with castles often built on high ground or near water for strategic advantage.
Campaign planning
Often planned around the seasons to ensure the availability of supplies.
Lord
A noble who owned land and provided protection and governance for the people living on it.
Fief
A piece of land granted by a lord to a vassal in exchange for loyalty, military service, and other duties.
Vassal
A noble who pledged loyalty and military service to a lord in exchange for a fief.
Mutual Obligations
Feudalism was based on reciprocal relationships between lords and vassals.
Knight
A mounted warrior who followed the code of chivalry and served a lord in exchange for land (a fief).
Franks
A Germanic tribe that rose to power under leaders like Clovis and Charlemagne.
Germanic Traditions
Early Germanic societies were tribal, with strong warrior traditions and loyalty to a chief or king.
Vikings
Seafaring raiders from Scandinavia who invaded and settled in various parts of Europe from the 8th to the 11th centuries.
Saddle/Stirrups
The saddle provided stability for mounted knights, while stirrups allowed for better balance and effective fighting on horseback.
Battle of Tours
Fought in 732 AD, this battle saw the Franks under Charles Martel defeat a Muslim army advancing from Spain.
Trade
Local and long-distance trade expanded during the medieval period, connecting towns through markets and trade routes.
Industry
Craft guilds controlled the production and trade of goods, including textiles and metalwork, in towns.
Methods of Exchange
Barter was common early on, but coinage became more widespread as trade grew.
Division of Labor
The economy was divided between agricultural labor (peasants/serfs) and skilled trades (artisans/craftsmen).
Markets
Towns and fairs became centers of trade where merchants exchanged goods.
Services
Primarily agricultural or craft-based, but banking and money-lending began to emerge in commercial centers.
Manorialism
Economic system where peasants worked land for lords in exchange for protection.
Manor
The lord's estate, including farmland and villages, serving as the basic unit of the feudal economy.
Serf
A peasant bound to a lord's land, working in exchange for protection and small plots to farm for personal use.
Self-sufficient
Manors were mostly self-sufficient, producing food, clothing, and tools on their own land.
Barter
Early economic exchanges were often based on barter, trading goods directly before coinage became more widespread.
Status of Women
Women had different roles depending on class, with noblewomen managing estates and peasant women working the land.
Class Structure
Society was divided into strict classes: nobles, knights, clergy, and peasants, with little mobility between them.
Family Structure
Patriarchal, with the father as the head of the household, often living with extended families.
Education
Reserved for the clergy and nobility, with monasteries and cathedral schools offering the primary sources of learning.
Immigration/Migration
Occurred due to Viking invasions, trade, and the expansion of empires, with towns attracting people seeking better opportunities.
Health and Disease
Poor health and sanitation were common, especially among peasants, with the Black Death significantly reducing the population.
Roman Empire
Initially a republic, the Roman Empire transitioned into an autocracy with the rise of emperors like Augustus.
Leaders of the Roman Empire
Some key leaders include Augustus (first emperor), Julius Caesar (who played a role in the fall of the Republic), and Constantine (who embraced Christianity).
Law System of the Roman Empire
The Romans developed a complex legal system, 'Roman Law,' which laid the foundation for many modern legal systems. The Twelve Tables were early laws; later, the Corpus Juris Civilis was compiled by Justinian.
Edict of Milan
A document from 313 AD that established religious tolerance, mainly for Christianity.
Basis for Citizenship in the Roman Empire
Citizenship was highly valued, providing certain rights and protections under Roman law. It was initially reserved for native Romans but was later extended to conquered peoples.
Byzantine Empire
An autocracy with the emperor having absolute authority, continuing many traditions from the Roman Empire but more centralized.
Leaders of the Byzantine Empire
Most notably Justinian I, who sought to restore Roman territories and codify Roman law, and his wife Theodora, who was a powerful influence in politics.
Law System of the Byzantine Empire
Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis was a major reform of Roman law that influenced European legal systems.
Justinian I
Byzantine Emperor known for his legal reforms (Justinian Code), reconquests in the West (North Africa, Italy), and significant construction projects like the Hagia Sophia.
Theodora
Empress and wife of Justinian, influential in court politics and reforms, particularly advocating for women's rights and social policies.
Central Authority
A government where power is concentrated in a central figure or institution, like the Roman Emperor or Byzantine Emperor.
Decentralized Authority
Power is spread among various local lords or rulers, characteristic of feudalism, where kings relied on nobles for military support and governance.
Feudalism
A political system common in medieval Europe where the king granted land (fiefs) to nobles (vassals) in exchange for loyalty and military service.
Mutual Obligations in Feudalism
The system was based on a series of reciprocal obligations. Kings granted land to lords (nobles), who then pledged military service.
Holy Roman Empire
A multi-ethnic complex of territories in Central Europe that developed during the early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806.
Clovis
King of the Franks who united the Frankish tribes and converted to Christianity, laying the foundation for the future Holy Roman Empire.
Charlemagne
One of the greatest rulers of the medieval period, crowned Emperor of the Romans in 800 AD. He expanded his empire across Western Europe.
Religion Themes
Includes Deity/Higher Power, Rules of Behavior, Sacred Text, Rituals, and Philosophy.
Leo III
Crowned Charlemagne as Emperor in 800 AD.
Gregory I
Reformed Church and strengthened papacy (590-604 AD).
Concordat of Worms
1122 agreement on church and emperor's authority.
Medieval Literature
Religious works often written in Latin.
The Divine Comedy
Dante's epic poem about the afterlife.
The Canterbury Tales
Chaucer's collection of stories from pilgrims.
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