IPS132 Chapter 2 draft

Paradigm

a pattern or model – in psychology an approach or framework for understanding the human mind

Epistemology

a knowledge base – the study of knowledge

Psychological theory

exists within a certain paradigm – are associated with certain paradigms.

Psychological schools of thought

Structuralism; Functionalism; Behaviourism; Gestalt

Structuralism (1875-1920s)

Influenced by the physical/natural sciences; Focus on studying the structure of the human mind or consciousness; Analysed consciousness into basic elements, for example, feelings, physical sensations, thoughts and the relationship between these elements; Use method of introspection ─ self-observation of one’s immediate experience of a stimulus

Criticism (Structuralism)

Too simplistic, subjective approach and unreliable method to understand and measure behaviour fully.

Structuralism’s great contribution was to:

Establish psychology as a science; Scientific inquiry through experimental research; The use of systematic methods to identify, analyse and describe psychological phenomena

Functionalism (1888–1912)

Emphasised the functions of the consciousness, the awareness of experiences, for example, in helping people to adapt; Influenced by evolution theory (Darwin) – believed that the human mind is not static, but an adaptable process; Used observation tests, animal research, experiments and statistics in research and assessment; Studied individual differences through heredity and mental abilities; Criticised for only emphasising functional behaviour and learning; Methods of measurement and research still used in applied psychology

what Evolution theory facilitates

study of individual differences

Behaviourism (1920–1960s ongoing)

Referred to as ‘first force’ in psychology; People react to stimuli from their internal and external environments, creating stimulus and response associations; A belief that environmental influences are deterministic because people are reactive; Recognised the role of internal, cognitive processes and the role of genetics in the learning process

psychologists behind Behaviourism

Watson, Skinner and Bandura

Associations emphasised by Behaviourism

association between stimuli and responses; These associations form the basis of mental processes and influence behaviour.

Behaviourism Learning approach

environmental and other influences provide stimuli which people respond to

classical conditioning (Stimulus–response (S–R) approach) (Watson)

If such responses are rewarded or strengthened certain responses are then formed

Operant conditioning (Skinner)

People (organisms) can influence their behaviour / learning, for example, only repeating behaviour if they think they will like the consequences

Social cognitive approaches

a person can have cognitive control over the stimuli and the responses in order to determine how learning happens (stimulus-organism-response (SOR) principle

what determines how learning takes place in observational learning (modelling)

social and cognitive processes like perception and expectation

what is prominent in applications of career counselling

Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy, or a person’s beliefs that they can achieve their goals

Personality in behaviourism

Characterised by acquired observable behaviours and thoughts; People’s environments and circumstances are deterministic causes of what they become; People are continually learning

Gestalt (1900-1930)

emerged in opposition to structuralism; Emphasised the wholeness (Gestalt) of experience and not just certain elements; The whole is more than the sum of its parts.

the phi-phenomenon

The illusion of movement when two lights flash in sequence and appear as one

application of Gestalt

Considers all domains of functioning; applied to understanding culture, groups, and organisational climate

what must be considered in the

study of personality

All domains of development and functioning, for example, physical and social

The psychoanalytic paradigm (1885–

1960s and ongoing)

viewed as the ‘second force’ in psychology; Studying the psyche by analysing unconscious processes in mental functions and psychological disorders; Uses process of free association; Within the three levels of consciousness, three other psychic structures direct human behaviour: the id, ego and super-ego

who founded the psychoanalytic paradigm

Sigmund Freud

Three levels of consciousness

conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious

conscious

comprises people’s awareness and contact with reality and entails the ego functions

pre-conscious

involves content just beneath the surface, which can be retrieved, for example, a name

unconscious

contains desires, memories and thoughts that are repressed deep below the surface or consciousness, for example, trauma

Three psychic structures

id, ego and super-ego

The id

contains the primitive biological drives, for example, sex, and eating – situated in the unconscious and directed at obtaining immediate gratification

The ego

houses the centre of conscious and realistic thoughts, behaviour and experiences

The super-ego

represents people’s morality and conscience, for example, feelings of guilt and applies social standards to distinguish right from wrong

According to the psychoanalytic paradigm, what influences adult behaviours?

Adult behaviours may result from how conflicts in and between psychic structures have been resolved during personality development.