experimental psychology

Confirmation bias

The human tendency to seek out information that confirms what is already believed

confirmation bias occurs when researchers or participants selectively focus on evidence that supports their existing beliefs, potentially skewing study results. Understanding this bias helps psychologists design studies that minimize subjective influence, promoting objective data interpretation

basic research

Research carried out to investigate issues relevant to the confirmation or disconfirmation of theoretical or empirical positions.

seeks to expand fundamental knowledge about psychological processes, such as memory, perception, and cognition, without immediate practical application. It serves as the foundation for applied research

applied research

Research carried out primarily to investigate a real-world problem.

translates psychological theories into real-world applications, such as developing clinical interventions or improving educational practices. It builds on basic research findings to solve practical problems

commonsense explanation

Loose explanations for behavior that are based on what we believe to be true about the world.

rely on intuition and personal experiences rather than scientific evidence. Experimental psychology aims to replace these with systematic, empirical research to provide reliable insights into behavior.

scientific explanation

An explanation based on the application of accepted scientific methods

are based on systematic observation and empirical evidence, distinguishing them from anecdotal or belief-based accounts. They allow psychologists to make predictions and testable claims about behavior.

science

A set of activities aimed at producing a systematic, reliable body of knowledge about the natural world and developing valid explanations for its workings.

refers to the systematic study of behavior and mental processes using empirical methods. It distinguishes itself from pseudoscience through rigorous methodology and falsifiability.

scientific method

provides a structured approach to studying behavior, involving hypothesis formulation, experimentation, observation, and data analysis to draw conclusions and refine theories.

natural world

treats human behavior as part of the natural world, meaning it can be studied through empirical observation and experimentation, just like biological or physical phenomena

empirical questions

can be answered with objective observation

These are questions that can be answered through direct observation and measurement, forming the foundation of psychological research (e.g., "How does stress affect memory?")

what do scientists do

• Scientists make systematic observations of the natural world 

  • Astronomers observe the stars and other astronomical objects 

  • Psychologists set up experiments to observe behavior 

  • Scientists provide evidence to support or refute proposed explanations for observed phenomena

systematic observation

Systematic observations produce quantitative and/or qualitative data, Scientists analyze data to discover relationships and draw conclusions 

• The conclusions need to be broader than explaining a specific event, but general conclusion about how or why a set of common event happen

  • Redescribing the event = not a broad explanation 

  • Explanation gives you a why something happens

quantitative data

A theory in which terms are expressed mathematically rather than verbally

Numerical data collected in experiments allows for statistical analysis, making psychological research more objective and replicable.

belief-based explanation

An explanation for behavior that is accepted without evidence because it comes from a trusted source or fits within a larger framework of belief.

These rely on personal conviction rather than empirical evidence. Psychology challenges such explanations by testing hypotheses through scientific research.

parsimonious explanation

An explanation or theory that explains a relationship using relatively few assumptions.

The simplest explanation that accounts for all observed phenomena is preferred in psychology to avoid unnecessary complexity.

provisional findings

Scientific conclusions in psychology are always open to revision as new evidence emerges, ensuring the field remains dynamic and self-correcting.

protoscience

• (fringe science) = science at the edges of current scientific understanding (sometimes called fringe science) 

  • Often uses the scientific method

  • Potential to develop into true science if the phenomena being studied receive legitimate scientific support

nonscience

• a legitimate academic discipline that applies systemic techniques to gather information, but does not use the scientific method 

  • Not observations of the empirical world

Areas of study that lack empirical methods and falsifiability, such as astrology, contrast with psychology’s scientific approach

pseudoscience

a set of ideas presented as science but are not really science because it departs systemically from the scientific method

Claims that appear scientific but lack empirical support (e.g., phrenology) are distinguished from legitimate psychological research through rigorous testing.

conformational strategy

• looking for evidence to confirm predictions from a theory 

  • Important part of theory testing but it has its limitations 

  • Confirmation does not prove a theory is correct

  • Confirmation may occur when predictions are too loosely defined

characteristics of scientific explanations

are based on carefully made observations of behavior, rigorously tested against alternative explanations, and developed to provide the most general account that is applicable over a variety of situations

Circular explanation

An explanation of behavior that refers to factors whose only proof of existence is the behavior they are being called on to explain.

Psychological research avoids circular reasoning by ensuring that explanations are independent of the phenomenon they describe (e.g., avoiding "He is aggressive because he has an aggressive personality").

tautology

an explanation of behavior that refers to factors whose only proof of existence is the behavior they are being called on to explain

Method of authority

Relying on authoritative sources (e.g., books, journals, scholars) for information.

true scientific understanding requires empirical validation rather than reliance on authority alone.

Rational method

Developing explanations through a process of deductive reasoning

Logical reasoning helps generate hypotheses in psychology, but empirical testing is necessary to confirm them