cognition Final Feldman

syllogism

an instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn (whether validly or not) from two given or assumed propositions (premises), each of which shares a term with the conclusion, and shares a common or middle term not present in the conclusion (e.g., all dogs are animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all dogs have four legs ).

is an argument consisting of exactly three categorical propositions (two premises and a conclusion) in which there appear a total of exactly three categorical terms, each of which is used exactly twice.

A categorical syllogism

Inductive Reasoning

Looking for a pattern or trend and then generalizing, don't necessarily know that is true. Estimating a future population

Deductive Reasoning

Taking known data and starting with facts and deducing other facts

Causal Inference

In a causal inference, one reasons to the conclusion that something is, or is likely to be, the cause of something else. For example, from the fact that one hears the sound of piano music, one may infer that someone is (or was) playing a piano.

Symmetry Formula

distance(a,b) = d(b,a)

What is forgetting?

A.failure to consolidate vs. failure to retrieve

interference among access cues - generally not "decay"

Declarative Memory

Knowledge of Facts

Episodic Memory

personal experiences; subjective point of view
The memories of what you ate for breakfast, your first day of college, and your cousin's wedding are examples of episodic memory. Episodic memory is one of two types of declarative memory.

The long-run value of something is also known as the

Expected Value

What is a "Chunk"

A link to long term memory
A pattern or group

What is the capacity of visual short term memory?

7+/- 2 items, or 3+/- 1 chunks

What stores the sensory experience?

Imagistic Representation

This stores the abstract relation (under(cat,chair)

Propositional Representation

This involves a mental analog of physical rotation and a spatially organized analog of a real picture is progressively transformed

Mental Rotation

Mental rotation allows us to look at an object and be able to flip it, for example, reading a word thats been written backwards.

Why is "Mental Rotation" different from propositional or declarative information?

Because it encodes info that hasn't been verbalized

This is a representation of a visual scene

Stored in long term memory

Retrieved and placed in a short-term visual buffer

Examined by the visual system

Mental Image

This allows us to be able to visualize something or someplace without actually being there, for example, the aisle in the grocery store that has cereal.

Mental scanning

These are representations of mental images are quasi-pictorial analogs of real images

Evaluation is performed by part of the visual system

Mental Imagery (Kosslyn)

This includes representations of images which are propositional or descriptive

scanning time results are due to cognitive expectations of subjects

Mental Imagery (pylyshyn)

According to Locke and Freud, where is knowledge is stored?

Associations or the "Associations Network"

Describe the Semantic Network and who is responsible for it?

Collins and Quillian semantic network: superordinate to subordinate - living thing -> is_a animal -> is_a bird -> robin -> has_property red, sings

what is the Triangle Inequality formula?

shortest distance between two points on a straight line

d(a,b) + d(b,c) >/= d(a,c)

Does similarity obey the distance axioms?

No (symmetry and triangle inequality)

Featural similarity can be __________ and can ______ the triangle inequality, like

asymmetric, violate - like human similarity judgments

Chomsky's review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior argued

The infinite compositionality and productivity of language makes his explanation inadequate

Going from premises (existing beliefs) to conclusions (new beliefs) is known as

reasoning

This describes someone who knows how to distinguish sentences from non-sentences.

Competent
the abstract knowledge held by a "competent" speaker of the language:

Performance is defined as

(how it works in practice): the details that deviate from the ideal competence, and the actual mechanisms for carrying it out (speaking and understanding)

What am I supposed to say next pertains to

pragmatics
or practical aspects of conversation

The system for producing all and only the legal structure in the given language is

Generative Grammar

____ ____________ experiments seemed to confirm the "psychological reality" of syntax boundaries.

Tone Localization

Rewrite Rules

describes ways in which certain symbols can be rewritten as other symbols.

for each new phrase, attach it to the existing tree in the simplest way possible is known as the principle of what?

Principle of Minimal Attachment

Individual sound classes (tooth = /t/ /oo/ /th/
are known as

Phonemes

This is known as the construction of words out of units that carry meaning (morphemes)

roots, prefixes, suffixes, affixes

Morphemes

Phonemes are distinguished by a number of parameters which are

Manner of articulation
Place of articulation
Voicing characteristics

bilabial (p,b) vs labiodental (f,v) vs various other types are known as

"Place of articulation"

Meaning and Logical form are known as

Semantics

Prescriptivism v Descriptivism

Prescriptivism = How "should" it work?
Descriptivism = How does it actually work?

Modus Ponens (strait forward deductive reasoning)

Modus Ponens
A → B (if A then B)

A (A is true)
--------
B (B is true)

A is the antecedent
B is the consequent

Modus Tolens (Method of Negation)

Modus Tollens
A → B (if A then B)
~B (B is false)
--------
~A (A is false)

If the consequent is true than what follows?

Nothing

The "WASON" Selection Task does what?

Proves that people aren't good at deduction

According to Laplace Probability Theory is

Laplace (1812): "Probability theory is nothing but common sense reduced to calculation"

Probability of combined propositions

p(A∧B)=probability both A and B are true.

A∧B is a subset of A, so

0≤ p(A∧B)≤p(A)

What is the formula for Conditional Probability

Probability

Conjunction Rule Formula

0≤p(A∧B)≤p(A)

Conjunction rule

Disjunction Rule Formula

Conditional Probability In Reasoning

Bayes Rule

Bayes Rule

Conditional Probability is the basis for

Inductive Inference

Why is Bayes rule helpful?

Because it is useful deciding how strongly to believe anything or inductive hypothesis on the bases of evidence and prior knowledge.

Bayes Rule Says:

Bayes' rule says: The posterior is proportional to the product of the prior and the likelihood (fit to the evidence).

What is the posterior?

This is how strongly to believe the conclusion with the answer given

Baysian Inference Example (use slide)

A random person, is he or she a democrat?

Prior Probability is p(D) = 58%

OK she's a woman p(D/F)=p(F/D)p(D)/p(F)


p(D/F) same as 31/50 = .62
p(F/D) same as 31/58 = .53
p(D) same as .58
(f) same as .50 0r .5

= (.53)(.58)/(.5) = .615

Baysian Inference is considered

Normative and rational

Explain the Conjunction Fallacy

Lady is bank teller

It is more less likely for her to be a feminist and a bank teller because the conjunction of the 2 together is less likely.

What is the common mistake made in the "Base Rate Fallacy"?

People forget to use the prior probability data.

What is the expected value?

Expected value is the long-run average value of something.

What is the formula for expected value?

EV(x) =∑xp(x)

If there is a 50% chance of 1 inch of rain, what is the expected amount

Add up each value of x weighted by its probability:

50% chance of 1 inch of rain = Expected: .5 inches.

EV(x) =∑xp(x)

= (.5)×(1 inch)+(.5)×(0 inches)=.5 inches

What is the Rational price of a bet?

The "rational" price of a bet is its "expected value".
This is considered normative.

Which do you prefer:
100% chance of $10
50% chance of $20

Expected values are the same:

1($10) = .5($20)=$10.

Most people prefer ..

But most people prefer the sure thing (the certain gain).

What about 50% chance of $20
99% chance of winning $12, with 1% of losing $100.

EV = .5($20) = $10.
EV = .99($12) + .01(-$100) = $10.88

What is Subjective Utility?

Subjective utility is how desirable something is to a particular person

This refers to the tendency of people to discount rewards as they approach a temporal horizon in the future or the past (i.e., become so distant in time that they cease to be valuable or to have additive effects).

Temporal Discounting

Are preference reversals rational or irrational

Irrational

What is a preference reversal?

You are given 3 choices.
A, A' and B
Because you can't make up your mind between A and A' you eventually choose B

What is Allia's Paradox?

It's the over weighting of small probabilities

An Example of Allia's Paradox:

Which would you choose?

a 50% chance at $100 or a 100% change at $50?

Most people choose 100% chance at $50 even though they are the same.

An Example of Allia's Paradox:

Which would you choose?

a 5% chance of $100 or 10% chance at $50?

Most people choose the 5% chance at $100 even though they have the same expected value of 5.

Decision Theory is (Expected Utility) which is

rational and normative but not descriptive

When you do the things you want to do but don't consider all the possibilities , this is considered

Satisficing

Satisficing is also known as

Bounded Rationality

This is an example of what?

Choosing a restaurant among a group based only on distance.

Satisficing because you haven't considered any other decision criteria. Politicians do this when campaigning on a specific issue they know voters will consider most important.

This is when we decide on how probable something is based on how available they are based in imagination.

Availability Heuristic