Unit Four: Conditioning

Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience - associative learning is learning that certain events occur together

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning where one learns to link 2+ stimuli and anticipate events - a way that all organisms will adapt to their environment

Unconditioned Response

Unlearned, naturally-occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response

Conditioned Response

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus

An originally irrelevant stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response

Three Steps of Classical Conditioning

1. Unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus are separate (before conditioning)

2. Paired together for the unconditioned response (during conditioning)

3. Conditioned stimulus makes conditioned response (after conditioning)

Pavlov’s dogs went through this

Acquisition

When one links a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, so that the neutral stimulus triggers the conditioned response

Higher-Order Conditioning

Pairing new stimulus with conditioned stimulus creating a second conditioned stimulus

Extinction

Diminished conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned response

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

When a stimuli similar to a conditioned one elicits the conditioned response

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimuli and one that doesn’t elicit a response

Learned Helplessness

Passive resignation learned when unable to avoid repeated aversive events - Rescorla and Wagner study where dogs resigned to abuse even when able to escape

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Law of Effect

Principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Shaping Behavior

Guiding behavior towards more desired behaviors through operant conditioning - consistency is key so they match behavior to the reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli (ex. food) - a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens a response

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (ex. shock) - a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

Positive Punishment

Administering an unwanted stimulus to decrease the behavior

Negative Punishment

Taking away a wanted stimulus to decrease the behavior

Punishment

Decreases the behavior that follows - punished behavior is suppressed but not forgotten - punishment teaches discrimination - can teach fear - physical punishment can increase aggression because it’s a model to cope with problems

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcement every time after a behavior - ex. give your dog a treat when he does a command

Partial Reinforcement

Behavior is not always reinforced - ex. going to the movies (not always a good movie) - learned behavior tends to be stronger

Fixed-Interval Schedule

An exact amount of time passes between each reinforcement (ex. paychecks)

Variable-Interval Schedule

A varying amount of time passes between each reinforcement (ex. winning a video game)

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (ex. restaurant punch cards)

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (ex. slot machines)

Extrinsic Motivation

The desire to behave a certain way to receive rewards or avoid punishments - excessive rewards undermine intrinsic motivation - excessive punishment leads to anger and hostility

Observational Learning

When we learn by observing others - modeling involves observing and imitating specific behaviors

Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so - this may enable imitation and empathy - helps us grasp other people’s states of mind, makes emotions contagious

Bandura Experiment

Kids watched videos of aggressive play with one toy, and they ended up imitating and accelerating the aggressive behavior

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior - opposite of antisocial behavior - models are most effective when actions and words line up

Antisocial Behavior

Poor behavior - antisocial models teach children bad behavior as they observe them - children of abusive families tend to be more aggressive (child abuse is generation bc of imitation)

TV and Antisocial Behavior

Between 1957-1974 homicide rates doubled in the US and Canada right when TV was becoming popular - a similar trend occurred in South Africa after they were introduced to TV in 1975 - elementary students with heavy exposure to media violence tend to get in more fights

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information - three stages

Three stages of memory

1. Sensory Memory: immediate, brief recording of sensory information

2. Short-Term Memory: activated memory that holds a few items briefly and is forgotten after the task

3. Long-Term Memory: Permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system - includes knowledge, skills, and experience

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory where we focus on active processing of sensory information that we are taking in with long-term memory that we recall

Encoding

Processing information into the memory system - automatic or effortful

Storage

Retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

Process of getting memories out of storage

Steps of Processing

• Encoding

• Storage

• Retrieval

Automatic Processing

Unconsciously encoding incidental information like space, time, frequency, and well-learned information - includes parallel processing where multiple pieces of info are unconsciously processed

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention - rehearsal, spacing effect, serial position effect (we only remember the first and last thing)

What we encode

• Visual Encoding - what we see

• Acoustic Encoding - what we hear

• Semantic Encoding - meaning, including words

Chunking

Process of encoding where we organize items into familiar and manageable units, often automatically

Iconic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting only seconds

Echoic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli - even with attention elsewhere words can be recalled within 3-4 seconds

Sperling Sensory Memory Experiment

Flashing things, can remember 4-5 of the letters/numbers

Working/Short-Term Memory

Limited in duration and capacity - only stores about seven bits of information - slightly better for random numbers than letters (ex. phone numbers) - approximately as many words as you can speak in two seconds - without rehearsal we can retain about four chunks of short-term memory

Long-term Memory

Limitless - we don’t discard information (unless there’s a lobotomy or alzheimers)

Long-Term Potentiation

Increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation - believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory - increased synaptic efficiency makes for more efficient neural circuits

Flashbulb Memories

Clear memory of an emotionally significant moment/event - can cause people to relieve traumatic events

Emotions/Stress and Memory

Stress hormones can signal that something important has happened (cortisol) - the amygdala boosts activity in memory centers when stressed - weaker emotions makes for weaker memories

Implicit Memories

Retention independent of conscious recollection - cerebellum, motor skills - ex. riding a bike

Explicit Memories

Memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare - hippocampus

Storing Memories

Memories-to-be enter the cortex through senses and are directed according to the sensation (implicit or explicit)

Mandela Effect

Phenomenon where large groups of people adopt false memories about an event, image, song, etc. - they incorporate misleading information into their memory of an event (misinformation effect)

Source Amnesia

Attributing to the wrong source (typically more reliable) an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined - this, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

True vs. False Memories

Our assumptions alter our perceptual memories - persistence does not mean a memory is real (children often remember false memories longer than real ones) - confidence also doesn’t mean it’s a true memory - prior to interrogation a detective may ask you to visualize a scene to activate retrieval cues

Repressed memories

These are common - those recovered under the influence or through hypnosis are not reliable - forgetting also can happen, leading to memory construction

Improving Memory

• Study repeatedly

• Make material meaningful

• Activate retrieval cues

• Use mnemonic devices

• Minimize interference

• Sleep more

• Test your own knowledge

Recall

Ability of memory where the person must retrieve information learned earlier - ex. a fill-in-the-blank test

Recognition

Ability of memory where the person must identify items previously learned - incredibly quick and vast - ex. multiple-choice test

Relearning

Ability of memory to save time learning material again - ex. studying for a final exam

Retrieval Cues

Bits of information encoded with information that can help you access it in the future - acts as an anchor point to look back on - mood, colors, smells, seating position, etc.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory techniques that increase your ability to recall - ROY G BIV, Never Eat Soggy Waffles

Priming

Activating recall with particular associations in memory - often unconsciously

Context and Memory

Putting yourself in the context where you experienced something can prime memory - seating, walking through a door

Deja Vu

Sense of having experienced something before triggering retrieval for earlier experiences

Mood-Congruent Memory

Tendencies to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood - memories retrieved through mood tend to extend the feeling