ap psych test memory and cognition

What is sensory memory?

The super-short-term memory that holds info for a few seconds. Example: Walking past a bakery and briefly smelling cookies—you notice it for a moment, then it fades.

What is short-term/working memory?

Info you hold and actively think about for 20–30 seconds before it’s forgotten or stored long-term. Example: Remembering a friend’s new address while walking to your car.

What is long-term memory (LTM)?

Info stored for days to years, can be explicit or implicit. Example: Remembering your birthday party (episodic) or that Paris is the capital of France (semantic).

What is explicit (declarative) memory?

Memories you can consciously recall. Episodic: Personal experiences (your birthday party). Semantic: Facts/general knowledge (Paris is France’s capital).

What is implicit (nondeclarative) memory?

Skills or procedures done automatically. Example: Riding a bike without thinking about each step.

What is procedural memory?

Type of implicit memory for how to do things. Example: Playing piano songs even after months without practice.

What is encoding?

The process of turning info into memory. Example: Making a mental image of your friend’s face to remember it later.

What is storage?

Keeping info in memory over time. Example: Your memory of a vacation stays in long-term memory so you can recall it months later.

What is retrieval?

Pulling info from memory when needed. Example: Remembering your grocery list while shopping.

What is the difference between recall and recognition?

Recall: Retrieving info without cues. Example: Writing your essay from memory. Recognition: Identifying info when you see it. Example: Picking the correct answer on a multiple-choice test.

What is the serial position effect?

Tendency to remember first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list. Example: Remembering the first and last people in a lineup but forgetting the middle ones.

What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?

Proactive: Old info blocks new info. Example: Hard to remember new password because old one sticks. Retroactive: New info blocks old info. Example: Forgetting old phone number after learning a new one.

What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?

Anterograde: Can’t form new memories. Example: Forgetting what you ate for lunch today. Retrograde: Can’t recall past memories. Example: Forgetting childhood events.

What is cognition?

Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding. Example: Planning your study schedule involves problem-solving and decision-making.

What is a concept in cognition?

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people. Example: “Dog” includes poodles, huskies, etc., even if you’ve never seen that exact breed.

What is a prototype?

The best example of a concept. Example: When you think of “bird,” a robin may come to mind before a penguin.

What is problem-solving?

Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal. Example: Figuring out how to unlock your phone when the screen freezes.

What are algorithms and heuristics?

Algorithm: Step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution. Example: Using the formula to solve a math problem. Heuristic: Mental shortcut for quick solution, may be error-prone. Example: Guessing which line at the store moves fastest.

What is insight?

Sudden realization of a solution. Example: “Ah! I can combine these two study notes to answer the question!”

What are fixation, mental set, and functional fixedness?

Fixation: Inability to see problem from a new perspective. Mental set: Using strategies that worked before, even if they don’t fit. Functional fixedness: Seeing objects only for their usual use. Example: You need a paperweight, but can’t use your mug because you only see it as a cup.

What is decision-making bias?

Systematic errors in thinking. Confirmation bias: Seeking info that supports your belief. Availability heuristic: Judging probability based on how easily examples come to mind. Example: Thinking plane crashes are common because you saw one on the news.

What is language?

A system for communicating thoughts and feelings using symbols. Example: Writing a text to explain your weekend plans.

What is phoneme vs. morpheme?

Phoneme: Smallest sound unit. Example: “c-a-t” has 3 phonemes. Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning. Example: “cats” has two morphemes: cat + plural “s.”

What is syntax?

Rules for arranging words. Example: “The cat chased the dog” vs. “Chased the dog the cat” (incorrect syntax).

What is semantics?

Meaning of words and sentences. Example: Understanding that “It’s raining cats and dogs” doesn’t mean literal animals are falling.

What is language acquisition?

How humans learn language. Example: Babies babble, then form words, then sentences.

What is the critical period for language?

Optimal window in childhood for learning language. Example: Kids exposed to a second language early become fluent; adults often struggle more.