Studied by 7 people
ingroup
“us” people with whom we share a common identity.
person perception
how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (a situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution).
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
actor observer bias
the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental attribution error (which focuses on our explanations for others’ behavior).
prejudice
an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
stereotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.
just world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
social identity
the “we” aspect of our self concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.
outgroup
“them” those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group.
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.
other race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross race effect and the own race bias.
attitudes
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
foot in the door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
persuasion
changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments.
norms
a society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. __ prescribe “proper” behavior in individual and social situations.
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
informational social influence
influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.
obedience
complying with an order or a command.
social facilitation
in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks.
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
deindividuation
the loss of self awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
group polarization
the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
tight culture
a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.
loose culture
a place with flexible and informal norms.
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.
frustration aggression principle
the principle that frustration the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal creates anger, which can generate aggression.
social script
a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.
mere exposure effect
the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them.
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship.
companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
social responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those needing their help.
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
social trap
a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
mirror image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.
self fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.
GRIT
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction; a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.
personality
an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
psychodynamic theories
theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experiences.
psychoanalysis (theory)
Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.
unconscious
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.
id
a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The ___ operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
ego
the partly conscious, “executive”part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. The __ operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
superego
the partly conscious part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
collective unconscious
Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history.
terror management theory
a theory of death related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
projective test
a personality test, such as the TAT or Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics and explore the preconscious and unconscious mind.
Rorschach inkblot test
a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots.
humanistic theories
theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.
hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s levels of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs. Often visualized as a pyramid, with needs nearer the base taking priority until they are satisfied.
self actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.
self transcendence
according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.
unconditional positive regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self awareness and self acceptance. (Also known as unconditional regard.)
self concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”
trait
a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self report inventories and peer reports.
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true false or agree disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory(MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
empirically derived test
a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups.
Big Five factors
five traits — openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism — that describe personality. (Also called the five factor model.)
social cognitive perspective
a view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
behavioral approach
focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.
self
in modern psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.
spotlight effect
overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).
self esteem
our feelings of high or low self worth.
self efficacy
our sense of competence and effectiveness.
self serving bias
a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably.
narcissism
excessive self love and self absorption.
individualism
a cultural pattern that emphasizes people’s own goals over group goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes.
collectivism
a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one’s extended family or work group).
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.
physiological need
a basic bodily requirement.
drive reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.
Yerkes Dodson law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.
affiliation need
the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group.
self determination theory
the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
intrinsic motivation
the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
extrinsic motivation
the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
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Flashcard (32)