cmn 277 exam 1

components of scientific research

empirical, systematic, logical, seeks to be objective, public

errors in human inquiry

inaccurate observation, overgeneralization, selective observation, ex post facto hypothesizing, ego involvement in understanding, premature closure of inquiry, mystification

ways of knowing + example of each

tradition, intuition, authority, science

survey

what people think, looking for relationship between two or more variables, cannot form causality

content analysis

describes in a systematic manner the content of the communication, trends over time

experiment

what is the effect of certain input variables on certain outcome variables, allows for causal claim

goals of science

prediction, explanation, understanding (sequence of causal events), control

hypothesis

specific prediction about what will happen under a certain set of well-specified conditions

falsifiable

it should be possible to specify ahead of time what sort of data, if observed, would make the hypothesis false

parsimonious

the aim is to gain the greatest amount of understanding from the smallest number of variables

intersubjective

descriptions of observations must be sufficiently detailed that other scientists will be able to replicate the observations

logical

scientists use inductive and deductive logic to achieve their goals. theories must not contain logical inconsistencies

skeptical/scientific attitude

approaching phenomenons with a doubting attitude

longitudinal survey

survey project that includes more than one sample taken at different points in time; trend, cohort, panel

trend study

individuals surveyed the first time are not the same as the ones surveyed the second time, but they have a commonality

cohort study

assessing changes in a group over many years, individuals are not the same in the second group but for example might be in the same age range

panel study

assessing the changes in the same individuals over time

time-order

variable doing the causing precedes the variable that is caused

manifest content

in relation to content analysis; material that actually appears and requires a minimum of interpretation by the coder

latent content

in relation to content analysis; content that might become apparent after a coder has interpreted or “read between the lines” of the message before coding

coding reliability

agreement between coders on how to code a unit to avoid chance agreements

unit of analysis

in relation to content analysis; what medium the coder is dissecting, paragraph, sentences, etc.

convergence (studies)

use of different methods still leads to the same general conclusion

meta-analysis

relies on studies that have already been published and uses those as the data for a new overall summary

cognitive approach to media effects

emphasizes the way our minds create knowledge based on media

mass communication as a process

1) message typically formulated by professional communicators

2) message sent in a rapid and continuous way via the media

3) message reaches larger and diverse mass audiences

4) audience interprets message so as to experience meaning intended (ideally) by the communicator

media influences on audience

1) range from trivial to profound

2) learning of new facts

3) feeling better: entertained

4) change beliefs, attitudes, behaviors

5) intended and unintended influences

consequences of using a mass medium

1) reduces feedback and process of role taking

2) possibility of incongruence in meaning (misinterpretation)

3) incongruence reduces influence

4) traditionally a largely one-way activity

consequences of large audiences

1) content designed for the average citizen

2) assume audience have limited attention

3) audience prefers to be entertained > enlightened; lose interest in topics making intellectual demands

society’s influence on media

1) media do not exist in a vacuum

2) cultural context shapes its nature and function

3) media systems differ greatly from society to society

4) level of tech dictates physical nature of media

5) economic support influences media

6) political system influences media content

media evolution and change

started in 15th century > earliest drawing from 30,000 bce is discovered > 3500bc writing is invented > 105 paper is invented > 1116 Chinese sew books to make stitched books > 1451 a press is used to print an old german poem > 1609 newspapers in germany > 1704 newspaper in boston prints advertising > 1878 edison gets patent for phonograph, first moving picture in this year > 1920 first commercial radio station > 1927 introduced the sound era of movies > 1938 tv is presented at world fair

propaganda model

1. ownership
2. advertisers
3. sources
4. flak
5. ideology

trends of media ownership

1) concentration of ownership within one industry: ownership by fewer people

2) cross-media ownership

3) conglomerate ownership: non-media owner

4) vertical integration: produce and distribute

pros of media ownership

1) synergy: enhanced combined effect

2) cuts down on business costs

3) increase in resources and services

4) less likelihood of local bias in news/information

5) larger companies can take more risks with certain projects

cons of media ownership

1) reduces number of ideas/diversity

2) may reduce amount of local information available

3) less criticism of large corporations

4) non-media owners insensitive to media standards of professionalism and ethics

5) need higher profits to pay for buy-outs

6) too much political power

active audience

an audience that seeks what it wants, rejects far more content than it accepts, interacts with the members of its’ group and with the media content it receives

agenda setting theory

the press tells us what to think about by establishing the relative importance of certain issues

blogs

website where information is updated frequently and presented in reverse chronological order (newest material coming first), typically accompanied with one or more hyperlinks

convergence (media)

merging or coming together of computing, telecommunications, and media in a digital environment

diffusion of information

how quickly news or information travels and the communication channels through which it spreads to a community of receivers

framing

choosing a broad organizing theme for selecting, emphasizing, and linking the elements of a story

gatekeeper

a person who, by selecting, changing, and/or rejecting messages, can influence the flow of information to a receiver or group of receivers

hypodermic needle model

each audience member receives messages directly from the source of a given medium

narrowcasting

programming designed to target a specific segment of the media audience

selective attention

receiver processes certain of the available stimuli while filtering out others

selective exposure

tendency to chose communication that will confirm your own opinions, attitudes, or values

telecommuting

people who work at various locations outside the main office, often at home, and are usually connected to the main office by computer and a high-speed modem

teleconferencing

holding a meeting with people in different, often distant locations

major phases of newspaper development

1) penny press, 1833-1860’s, “inverted pyramid”, papers become less partisan, more accessible

2) yellow journalism, 1870’s-1915, content becomes sensationalized and occasionally untrue due to increase in competition, “watchdog journalism”

3) objective, 1896-today, verifiable facts, increase use of inverted pyramid, removal of reporters voice, multiple sides for every issue, reliance on sources

4) multi-media, 1916-today, slow erosion of newspaper audience, format changes

major phases of tv development

1) network era, 1950’s- 1970s, content is entertainment inherited from radio, quickly the audience is the nation, networks dominate

2) transition period, 1980’s-today, network audience erosion, factors reducing network dominance (cable tv, dvd’s, new tech), tv adapts (product placement, dvd packages, video downloads, mobile devices and apps)

four stages of fragmentation

1) unitary - one to many (og networks abc, cbs, nbc)

2) pluralism model - more options in unitary model (more networks, wb, fox)

3) core-periphery model - competing channels outside of unitary (cable and satellite)

4) breakup model - disintegration of unitary model (netflix, tailored computer screening)

computer-mediated communication changes

1) multimedia (words, pictures, sound, video)

2) hypertextuality (multiple links to many other sites and stimulus sources)

3) interactivity (having feedback capability)

4) packet switching (internet relies on transfer of digital bits rather than dedicated connection)

mass communication defined

having a large, anonymous, heterogenous audience, messages originates and then is communicated to the masses, are institutional and organized

media use trends for tv

by the 1980s around 98% of US homes had a tv, there is group differences by age when you primarily watch tv, theres also a prime time on tv with is 8-11 pm, video recording became popular with the vcr but has later changed to dvr forcing advertisers to adapt to people fast forwarding through their ad

media use trends for radio

age and interest segmented, most available mass communication method, broadcasts mainly news and music

media use trends for newspapers

earliest form of mass communication, decreased seen in people buying physical copies of newspaper but increase in online engagement, have a local identity and are the first source for local news, advertising, and sports, generally read by older, well educated, wealthy white people

media use trends for magazines

special interest, girls read more fashion focused ones such as cosmopolitan and vogue while boys tend to read ones like sports illustrated

computer-mediated-communication

the use of computers and networks to connect/ communicate with one another

media literacy

set of critical thinking skills involving the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and process media

hypertextuality

multiple links to many other sites and stimulus sources

interactivity

having feedback capability

packet switching

internet relies on transfer of digital bits rather than dedicated connection

synchronicity

one-to-one asynchronous (email)

many-to-many asynchronous (bulletin boards)

one-to-many asynchronous (posts)

also includes texting and skype

policy players

legislative branch (congress)

FCC (indecency, children’s tv regulations)

FTC (regulates advertising and commerce, protects people from deceptive ads)

interested parties (industry groups (NAB), citizen activist groups (ACT))

judicial branch

executive branch

scarcity

broadcasters have their license because airwaves are a national/natural source, co-channel interference

how video distribution influences level of regulation

1. og broadcast has the most content regulation
2. cable/satellite: has more options, subscription based, fewer content regulations
3. computers/internet: almost limitless capacity very little regulation

macro-policy issues

1. access: who is allowed to speak?
2. diversity: are different voices represented?
3. “public interest”: what helps the public or what does the public like?

micro-policy issues

further regulation encompassing specific policy decisions can drive outcomes

deregulation: avoid involvement and let market rule

means for achieving policy goals

1. regulation: government passes law
2. raised eyebrow approach: government threatens regulation
3. marketplace competition: government does nothing

indecency regulation

content that describes or depicts sexual or excretory activities or organs is patently offensive according to contemporary community standards

Obrien test

used to test policies’ constitutionality, if all three get a yes its legal


1. is regulation based on a compelling government interest?
2. does regulation further government interest?
3. is the regulation the least restrictive means of accomplishing the government interest?

V-chip

electronic filtering device that parents can use to block the reception of programming they do not want their children to see because it contains violence or other sensitive material

indecency defined

language or material that depicts or describes, in terms patently offensive as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium, sexual or excretory activities or organs

first blow policy

children can be harmed by their first brief, exposure to an incident utterance or image

deregulation

shift of political philosophy from an emphasis on regulation to achieve public goals to a reliance on marketplace competition to best serve the public’s interest

children’s tv act

requirement that every broadcast station must provide programming “specifically designed” to serve the educational and informational needs of kids

kids’ understanding of selling intent

children below 8 cannot understand selling intent

bumper

program/commercial separation devices

host-selling

program characters or hosts are prohibited from promoting products during commercials adjacent to their shows

program-length commercials

a program associated with a product in which commercials for that product are aired

powerful effects

moving/influential

limited effects

only some are influenced

mediated effects

effects depend upon many factors

magic bullet theory

mass media affect everyone the same way, effects are powerful direct and immediate

two-step flow of communication

reinforcement via opinion leaders

media effects defined and complications

fundamentally the belief that the media has some influence upon peoples and their actions

four general types of media effects

cognitive: how and what you think

attitudinal: how you feel

physiological: physical reactions

behavioral: what you do

social learning theory

learn behaviors from observing others performing those behaviors and subsequently imitating them

scripts schemas and social cognition

knowledge structures or frameworks that organize an individual’s memory for objects or events; media presentations produce inferences

cultivation theory

extensive exposure to media over time gradually shapes our view of the world

socialization theories

media teaches us about the world; effects greatest when we perceive the content as realistic

uses and gratifications

people use media to fulfill certain gratifications; effects may depend on the gratifications sought

agenda setting theory

news media do not tell us what to think, but what to think about

administrative research

research done by or for tv networks, publishers, corporations, or ad agencies for commercial purposes

critical research

performed by independent scientists, most often professors at colleges and universities, with the goal of understanding and explaining the effects of media and studying their role in society and in peoples lives

operational definition

specific definitions of the variables being tested

direct effects model

effects appear quickly and are relatively similar across all audience members

theory of uniform effects

most individuals in a mass society perceive messages from media in the same fashion and react to them strongly and very similarly

conditional effects model

media can still have substantial effects, but only under certain conditions or for certain audience members, often in less dramatic form than suggested by the most vocal critics

cumulative effects

emphasizes the importance of repeated exposure to media stimuli and suggests that effects are due not so much to a single exposure as to the additive effects of many instances of exposures