Ap Euro SM 2

Congress of Vienna

Congress of Vienna

Congress of Vienna

• A meeting in 1814-1815 to restore stability in Europe after Napoleon's defeat, where major powers redrew borders and established a balance of power.

Hundred Days

refers to Napoleon's return to power in France in 1815 after escaping exile on Elba, leading to his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.

Holy Allience

Holy Alliance

• A coalition formed in 1815 by Russia, Prussia, and Austria to uphold Christian principles and suppress revolutionary movements in Europe.

Concept Of Europe

A cultural and geographical region comprising countries in the western part of the continent. It is known for its diversity in languages, traditions, and history.

german Confederaton

A loose association of 39 German states created in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars, aimed at maintaining the balance of power in Central Europe.

greek Revolution

A war of independence fought by Greeks against the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1832, resulting in the establishment of the modern Greek state.

Carlsbad Decrees

Issued in 1819, these laws restricted freedom of speech and press in the German Confederation to suppress liberal and nationalist movements.

Zollverein

A customs union established in 1834, uniting German states to facilitate trade by abolishing internal tariffs and standardizing economic policies.

differentiation

Flashcard: Process of finding the rate of change of a function by calculating its derivative. It helps analyze curves, slopes, and optimization problems.

standard of livin debate

Discussion on the quality of life and well-being of individuals within a society, often considering factors like income, education, healthcare, and housing.

spinning jenny

Invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, it revolutionized the textile industry by allowing one worker to spin multiple threads at once, increasing production speed.

Romatiscism

Artistic, literary, and intellectual movement in the late 18th to mid-19th century. Emphasized emotion, individualism, nature, and the supernatural.

conservatism

Political ideology favoring tradition, limited government intervention, free market economy, and individual responsibility. Often associated with preserving societal norms.

iron law of wages

States that wages will always tend towards the minimum required for subsistence, due to population growth outpacing job opportunities.

factory act of 1833

British law limiting child labor and improving working conditions in factories during the Industrial Revolution.

cooperatives

Member-owned businesses where individuals work together to meet common economic, social, and cultural needs through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise.

poor law

a historical system in Europe, notably in Britain, designed to provide aid to the impoverished, usually through workhouses or monetary assistance, with varying degrees of regulation and assistance levels.

liberalism

a political and social philosophy emphasizing individual rights, equality, and freedom, often advocating for limited government intervention in economic and social affairs, and promoting civil liberties and free markets.

utilitarianism

Do what brings the most happiness to the most people

Utopian Socialism

aims for a perfect society without class distinctions, often through peaceful and communal means, as envisioned by thinkers like Charles Fourier and Robert Owen.

Luddite

English textile workers in the 19th century who protested against the introduction of machinery, fearing job losses and decreased wages, leading to the destruction of machinery in factories.

Corn laws

British regulations in the 19th century that imposed tariffs and restrictions on imported grain, benefiting landowners but raising food prices for consumers, contributing to social and political tensions.

Reform Bill of 1832

Britain aimed to make voting fairer by increasing representation and redistributing parliamentary seats, paving the way for more democratic governance.

chartism

a 19th-century British working-class movement advocating for political reforms such as universal male suffrage, secret ballots, and annual parliamentary elections, aiming to give greater power to the common people in government decision-making.

combination Acts

British laws in the early 19th century that banned labor unions and strikes, aiming to prevent collective worker action, but were later repealed due to public opposition.

2nd industrial revolution

occurring in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, was characterized by advancements in steel production, electricity, and communication technologies, leading to rapid industrialization, urbanization, and economic growth in Western countries.

The Demographic translation

model explaining the shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as societies undergo industrialization and development, typically transitioning through four stages of population change.

Marxism

a socio-political theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx, advocating for the abolition of private property, the establishment of a classless society, and the belief that historical progress is driven by class struggle and the eventual triumph of the proletariat over the bourgeoisie.

Positivism

philosophical and scientific approach that emphasizes empirical observation, data, and verifiable evidence as the basis for knowledge and understanding, rejecting metaphysical speculation and subjective interpretations in favor of objective analysis.

Dawinism

the theory of evolution by natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin, suggesting that species evolve over time through the process of natural selection, where those individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to gradual changes in populations over generations.

Germ Theory

scientific understanding that microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, can cause infectious diseases, revolutionizing medicine and public health practices by emphasizing the importance of sanitation and hygiene in preventing illness.

boxer rebellion

anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising in China from 1899 to 1901, led by a group called the Boxers, who sought to expel foreign influences and suppress Christianity, resulting in violence against foreigners and missionaries until it was quelled by an international coalition.

Boer War

conflict fought between the British Empire and the Boer states in South Africa from 1899 to 1902, stemming from tensions over British imperialism and control of the region's resources, ultimately resulting in British victory and the incorporation of the Boer territories into the British Empire.

Berlin Conference

a meeting in 1884-1885 among European powers to regulate and partition Africa among themselves, leading to the arbitrary division of the continent into colonies and spheres of influence without regard for African ethnic boundaries or sovereignty, shaping the colonial map of Africa for decades to come.

Afrikaners

descendants of Dutch, German, and French settlers who arrived in South Africa in the 17th century, forming a distinct ethnic group with their own language, Afrikaans, and cultural identity, playing a significant role in the history and politics of South Africa, particularly during apartheid.

Socialism

socio-economic system advocating for collective ownership and democratic control of the means of production, aiming to create a more egalitarian society with equitable distribution of wealth and resources, often through government intervention and welfare programs.

Proletariat

the working class, particularly those who do not own the means of production and must sell their labor to survive, as described in Marxist theory, seen as having a shared interest in overthrowing the capitalist system and establishing a classless society.

bourgeoise

capitalist class who own and control the means of production in society, according to Marxist theory, profiting from the labor of the proletariat and maintaining power and privilege through economic dominance.

Pasteurization

process of heating liquid foods to a specific temperature for a certain time to kill harmful bacteria and pathogens, thereby extending the shelf life of the product while retaining its flavor and nutritional value, named after the French scientist Louis Pasteur who developed the technique.

June Days

a series of worker uprisings in Paris in June 1848, sparked by social and economic grievances amidst the French Second Republic, leading to violent clashes between the government and workers, ultimately resulting in the suppression of the revolt and the consolidation of power by conservative forces.

italian National Society

a secret society founded by Giuseppe Mazzini in the early 19th century, aiming for Italian unification and independence from foreign rule, playing a significant role in the Risorgimento movement.

Expidetion for the thousand

a military campaign led by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860, involving a thousand volunteers, aimed at liberating southern Italy from Bourbon rule and contributing to the unification of Italy.

Blood and iron

political philosophy of Otto von Bismarck, emphasizing the use of war and industry to achieve Prussian dominance and German unification in the 19th century.

North German Confederation

a political entity created in 1867 by Otto von Bismarck, uniting northern German states under Prussian leadership as a precursor to the eventual unification of Germany.

Mir

Russian village community, where peasants collectively owned and managed land, played a crucial role in the agricultural and social structure of Russia before the reforms of the late 19th century.

Dual Monarchy

political arrangement established in 1867 between Austria and Hungary, creating the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with separate governments and parliaments for each region but a shared monarch and foreign policy.

Kultorkampf

a conflict initiated by Otto von Bismarck in 1871 against the Catholic Church in Germany, aiming to reduce its influence over education and public life in favor of state control, but ultimately leading to tensions and divisions within German society.

Salon Des Refuses

art exhibition held in Paris in 1863, showcasing works rejected by the official Paris Salon, including avant-garde and controversial pieces that challenged traditional artistic norms, contributing to the development of modern art movements.

First International

founded in 1864, aiming to unite workers' movements across different countries and advocate for labor rights, social reforms, and international solidarity, playing a significant role in the early labor movement.

anarchism

a political philosophy advocating for the abolition of hierarchical authority and the establishment of a society based on voluntary cooperation, mutual aid, and decentralized decision-making, aiming for a stateless and non-coercive society.

Paris Commune

a revolutionary government established in Paris in 1871, characterized by worker-led initiatives, direct democracy, and social reforms, but was ultimately crushed by the French government, becoming a symbol of revolutionary struggle and worker empowerment.

Third Republic

period of French history from 1870 to 1940, marked by a republican form of government following the fall of Napoleon III's Second Empire, enduring political instability, social reforms, and periods of economic growth and crisis, until its collapse during World War II.

Dreyfus case

political scandal in France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, involving the wrongful conviction of Jewish army officer Alfred Dreyfus for espionage, highlighting issues of anti-Semitism, injustice, and the struggle for truth and justice within the French military and society.

Second Reich

period of German history from 1871 to 1918, encompassing the reign of Emperor Wilhelm I and his successors, Otto von Bismarck's unification of Germany, and the establishment of the German Empire, characterized by authoritarian rule, industrialization, and militarism.

Reichstag

parliament of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918, representing the legislative body of the Second Reich, albeit with limited powers compared to the executive authority held by the Kaiser and Chancellor.

1905 Revolutionaries

diverse groups in Russia who revolted against Tsar Nicholas II's autocratic rule, demanding political reforms, civil liberties, and better working conditions, culminating in the 1905 Russian Revolution, which forced the tsar to grant a constitution and establish a parliament, though ultimately retaining power.

october Manifesto

a document issued by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in 1905, following the 1905 Revolution, promising civil liberties, an elected parliament (Duma), and some degree of constitutional monarchy, in an attempt to quell unrest and maintain his autocratic rule.

Duma

legislative assembly established in Russia in 1906 following the 1905 Revolution, serving as the lower house of the Russian parliament under the October Manifesto, though its powers were limited by the tsar and the autocratic system, eventually dissolved by Nicholas II during times of political crisis.

Red Shirts

paramilitary force led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification movement in the 19th century, known for their red attire and nationalist fervor, playing a significant role in the Risorgimento and the establishment of a unified Italy.

Triple Allience

a military coalition formed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, aimed at maintaining their mutual security and countering potential threats in Europe, but eventually collapsed during World War I when Italy switched sides.

Triple Entente

a military alliance formed in the early 20th century between France, Russia, and Great Britain, aimed at countering the Triple Alliance and maintaining the balance of power in Europe, eventually becoming one of the main opposing forces against the Central Powers in World War I.

Causes of WW1

militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism, with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in 1914 acting as the immediate trigger that ignited the conflict, leading to a chain reaction of declarations of war among European powers.

Schiefeffen plan

a German military strategy developed by Count Alfred von Schlieffen in the early 20th century, aiming to quickly defeat France by circumventing its heavily fortified border with Belgium and encircling Paris, allowing Germany to then focus on the Eastern Front against Russia, but ultimately failed due to logistical challenges and unexpected resistance.

Treaty of brest-Litovsk

Treaty of brest-Litovsk

fourteen points

set of principles outlined by President Woodrow Wilson in 1918, aiming to establish lasting peace after World War I by promoting principles such as open diplomacy, self-determination for nations, and the creation of a League of Nations to prevent future conflicts.

lEague of nations

an international organization founded after World War I in 1919, with the goal of promoting peace and cooperation among nations, though it faced challenges in enforcing its decisions and ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II.

War Guilt Clause

a provision in the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, placing sole responsibility for World War I on Germany and its allies, leading to significant reparations and territorial losses for Germany, contributing to resentment and economic hardships that fueled political instability in the country.

Mobilization

process of preparing and organizing military forces for war, including the deployment of troops, equipment, and resources, often involving the activation of reserve units and the coordination of transportation and logistics.

Sinn Fein

Irish political party founded in 1905, advocating for Irish independence and the establishment of a republic, playing a significant role in the struggle for Irish self-determination, particularly during the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent establishment of the Irish Free State.

Spartacists

a radical left-wing group in Germany during the early 20th century, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, who sought to establish a socialist republic through revolution, particularly active during the German Revolution of 1918-1919 but ultimately suppressed by the government.

Dawrs Plan

an international financial agreement in 1924 aimed at addressing Germany's inability to pay reparations after World War I by restructuring its debt payments and providing loans, ultimately stabilizing the German economy and easing tensions in Europe.

Locarno pact

a series of agreements between European powers aimed at ensuring peace and resolving disputes in the aftermath of World War I, particularly regarding the demilitarization of the Rhineland and the recognition of existing borders, though it ultimately failed to prevent future conflicts.

Imperial Conferance of 1926

a gathering of representatives from Britain and its dominions, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Ireland, where the Balfour Declaration recognized them as autonomous and equal in status, paving the way for the Commonwealth of Nations.

Lusitania

a British ocean liner sunk by a German submarine in 1915 during World War I, leading to the deaths of over 1,100 civilians, including Americans, and contributing to the eventual entry of the United States into the war

total war

a military strategy and concept involving the complete mobilization of a nation's resources, economy, and population towards the war effort, blurring the lines between civilian and military targets and aiming for complete victory at any cost.

First Balkan war

conflict fought in 1912-1913 between the Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro) and the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the Ottoman defeat and significant territorial losses in the Balkans, setting the stage for further conflicts in the region.

Balfour Declaration

a statement issued by the British government in 1917 expressing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, laying the groundwork for the eventual creation of the state of Israel and shaping the course of Middle Eastern politics.

Repartation

the compensation or payments made by a defeated nation to the victors, typically following a war or conflict, to cover damages or losses incurred.

Physchoanalysis

a psychological theory and therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud, focusing on the exploration of unconscious conflicts and desires to understand and treat mental disorders and emotional distress.

Surrelaism

artistic and literary movement that emerged in the early 20th century, emphasizing the expression of the subconscious mind through dream-like imagery, unexpected juxtapositions, and irrational elements, often challenging conventional reality and logic.

Theory of Reality

seeks to understand the nature of existence and the fundamental principles governing the universe, exploring concepts such as the nature of existence, perception, causality, and the relationship between the physical world and consciousness.

uncertainty Principal

formulated by Werner Heisenberg, states that it is impossible to simultaneously measure both the position and momentum of a particle with perfect accuracy, implying an inherent limit to the precision of our knowledge about certain pairs of physical properties in quantum mechanics.

Bauhaus

a German art school founded by Walter Gropius, known for its interdisciplinary approach to art, architecture, and design, emphasizing functionality, simplicity, and the integration of art into everyday life, influencing modernist movements worldwide.

Feburary Rebvolution

a spontaneous uprising in Russia in February 1917 (Julian calendar), leading to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of a provisional government, marking the start of the Russian Revolution.

october revolution

also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, occurred in October 1917 (Julian calendar) in Russia, where the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power from the provisional government, establishing a communist regime and leading to the formation of the Soviet Union.

War Communism

an economic and political policy implemented by the Bolshevik government during the Russian Civil War, involving centralized control of industry, agriculture, and distribution, aimed at mobilizing resources for the war effort and ensuring supplies for the Red Army, often characterized by requisitioning of food and harsh measures against perceived class enemies.

NEC

a set of economic reforms implemented by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik government in Soviet Russia in the early 1920s, allowing for a limited return to market principles after the harsh measures of War Communism, permitting small-scale private enterprise, trade, and agriculture while maintaining state control over key industries and strategic sectors.

Mensheviks

a faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, advocating for a more gradual and moderate approach to socialist revolution compared to the Bolsheviks, eventually becoming a separate political party, particularly active before and during the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Bolsheviks

Russian Social Democratic Labor Party led by Vladimir Lenin, advocating for a revolutionary overthrow of the capitalist system and the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat, ultimately seizing power in the October Revolution of 1917 and forming the basis of the Soviet Union.

Czech Brigade

a military force composed mainly of Czech and Slovak volunteers who fought against the Central Powers during World War I and later played a significant role in the Russian Civil War, supporting the White Army against the Bolsheviks.

March of Rome

a pivotal event in Italian history in 1922 when Benito Mussolini and the Fascist Party marched on the capital, resulting in King Victor Emmanuel III appointing Mussolini as Prime Minister, marking the beginning of Fascist rule in Italy.

Fascism

far-right political ideology characterized by authoritarianism, nationalism, and dictatorial power, often advocating for a centralized government led by a single leader, suppression of dissent, and promotion of militarism and ultra-nationalism.

Falange

a Spanish political party founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera in 1933, advocating for authoritarianism, nationalism, and traditionalism, playing a significant role in the Spanish Civil War and later merging with the Nationalist faction led by Francisco Franco, who established a dictatorship in Spain.

Lateran Agreement

signed in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, established Vatican City as an independent sovereign state and resolved the "Roman Question," granting the Pope temporal sovereignty over the Vatican and recognizing Catholicism as the state religion of Italy.

the SS

a paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, initially serving as his personal bodyguard but later expanding to become a powerful force involved in various aspects of Nazi Germany, including intelligence, security, and carrying out atrocities during the Holocaust.

Lrystaknacht

the coordinated attacks against Jews throughout Nazi Germany and Austria on November 9-10, 1938, during which Jewish-owned businesses, synagogues, and homes were vandalized, looted, and destroyed, marking a significant escalation in Nazi persecution of Jews and foreshadowing the Holocaust.

Nuremberg laws

a set of anti-Semitic legislation enacted by Nazi Germany in 1935, which institutionalized racial discrimination against Jews, stripping them of citizenship rights and prohibiting marriage or sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews.

New Deal

a series of economic programs and reforms implemented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States during the 1930s, aimed at providing relief, recovery, and reform in response to the Great Depression, including measures to create jobs, regulate financial markets, and support agricultural and industrial sectors.

Popular Front

coalition of left-wing political parties and movements formed to oppose fascism and promote social and economic reforms, particularly prominent in Europe during the 1930s, aiming to unite progressives, socialists, and communists against the rising threat of authoritarian regimes.

Collectivization

policy implemented by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s and early 1930s, aiming to consolidate individual peasant farms into collective farms owned and managed by the state, often through coercion and force, as part of the broader process of industrialization and socialist transformation of agriculture in the Soviet Union.