Psychology Studies

Background of Gottman

The ways in which couples deal with conflict can largely predict the likelihood of the termination of the relationship. During an argument, there are "four horsemen" that must be avoided and replaced by other techniques to demonstrate respect and love towards the partner, instead of aggression and negativity. - 4 horsemen:- Critisism: Criticising the partner's personality and character, rather than the behaviour - Contempt: Criticism with the intention of psychologically abusing and insulting the partner. (name-calling, sarcasm, rolling eyes) - Defensiveness: Denying responsibility, making excuses or returning their partner's complaint with their own - Stonewalling: Removing oneself from the conversation, by refusing to speak, removing eye contact, monosyllabic responses or changing the subject -Ways to resolve: - Criticism: "I" statements - Contempt: Respect - Defensiveness: Accepting responsibility - Stonewalling: Taking a break

Aim of Gottman

To create and test models of causes of relationship dissolution as well as investigate what makes marriages last.

Participants of Gottman

200 couples followed for 20 years

Procedure of Gottman

• Couples were interviewed about their frequency of fights, types of conflicts etc. - Couples were observed in "love labs" before and after discussing common conflict areas in the relationship, where facial expressions, physiological responses (pulse, sweating), tone of voice, what was said was recorded. The time spent in positive and negative interaction was measured.

Results of Gottman

1. Three Styles of problem solving were found in healthy marriages:- Validating: Couples communicate and compromise to calmly work out their problem to mutual satisfaction- Volatile: Recurrent conflicts with passionate disputes, tend to view each other as equal, individuality is important, passionate and exciting marriages - Conflict avoiding: Agreeing to disagree, no confrontation 2. The ratio of positive interactions to negative interactions must be 5:1 (eg for every insult, 5 compliments must be given) The marriage was likely to be stable if this ration was maintained 3. Ways of communicating including the 4 horsemen often predicted relationship breakdown

Background of Bradbury and Fincham

• Happy relationships engage in RS-enhancing patterns when there's a disagreement; don't blame or assume partner things did on purpose - Distress-maintaining pattern; unhappy couples blame partners for what happens and don't give credit for positive events

Procedure of Bradbury and Fincham

• Observational study - 47 couples all married for 8 years gained through local media - Couples considered if married, living together and not been for marriage counselling - Completed survey to determine marital satisfaction and questionnaire for greatest problems in marriage - Researcher chose common problems from questionnaire and asked all p's cause and who's responsible. Asked each problem specifically from questionnaire that spouse did not identify as problem- Couples brought together and discussed solutions to problems identified (observed in lab and videotaped) - Researchers independently coded and videotaped to identify RS-enhancing and distress-maintaining patterns of communication

Findings of Bradbury and Fincham

• Couples who reported lower level of marital satisfaction had more frequent distress-maintaining patterns of communication - Interactions between such couples were rates as hostile and rejecting positive approaches of partner

Aim of Dion et al

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of the halo effect in choosing a partner.

Procedure of Dion et al

Research Method: Experiment — Sample: 30 male and 30 female undergraduate students from a US university - 1. Participants were told that they were participating in a study regarding "accuracy in people perception" and being compared to graduate students who had been trained in that area. 2. They were each given three envelopes containing photos of people their age, one being considered physically attractive, the other moderately attractive, and the last one unattractive. The researchers used 12 different sets of photos. 3. Half of the participants were given photos of people of the same sex while the other half were given photos of the opposite sex. The set of photos, the gender received and the order in which they were to be opened were all randomly allocated. 4. The participants were asked to rate the person on 27 personality traits on a six-point scale. 5. After that, they were asked to complete a survey on who they thought was the most and least likely to experience marital happiness, parental happiness, and overall happiness. 6. Finally, they were asked to indicate who would be most likely to engage in 30 different occupations. The occupations were divided into "low status," "average status" and "high status".

Results of Dion et al

It was found that the people considered attractive were predicted to be happier, more successful, and possess more positive personality traits. However, this was not true in the case of parenting, where they were actually predicted to be worse parents.

Aim of Markey and Markey

To investigate the role of similarity in choosing romantic partners.

Method of Markey and Markey

A volunteer sample of 103 female and 66 male undergraduate students who were single but interested in finding a romantic partner (mean age 19.01) were recruited through advertisements. First ppts completed a questionnaire where they rated their own personality, values and attitudes. They then had to do the same for their romantic ideal, without thinking of anyone in particular. They also completed filler questionnaires to disguise the true purpose of the study.

Results of Markey and Markey

The study found that ppts described themselves and their ideal partner very similarly; warm people were attracted to others who were warm, the same was found for dominance. The results indicate that people believe that similarity in a potential partner is important but this ideal partner might is difficult to find.

Conclusion of Markey and Markey

This supports the similarity-attraction model because participants wanted a partner who had similar attitudes, beliefs and values to themselves.

Aim of Li et al

To investigate potential differences in mate preferences between Singaporeans and Americans, specifically focusing on short-term and long-term relationships

Procedure of Li et al

• Participants in the study consisted of undergraduate psychology students, with 207 attending a Midwestern American university and 200 attending a Singaporean university - Unlike Buss's study, Li et al. (2010) examined bot short-term and long-term relationships - Researchers provided the participants with 100 "mate dollars" and instructed them to allocate these dollars across five different traits: physical attractiveness, social status, creativity, kindness, and liveliness - The participants made their allocations based on their considerations for either a short-term or a long-term relationship

Results of Li et al

• Study revealed that, for short-term relationships, men and women from both cultures prioritised physical attractiveness - However, when considering long-term relationships, both American and Singaporean men prioritised physical attractiveness, while women from both countries prioritized social status - Findings suggested that an evolutionary explanation of mate choice might be more influential than cultural differences in shaping mate preferences

Aim of Moreland and Beach

The aim of this study is to test the validity of the mere-exposure effect.

Procedure of Moreland and Beach

Research Method: field experiment — Sample: 130 undergraduate psychology students (63 male; 67 female); all of the participants were taking a personality psychology course in a large lecture hall. — 1. Four women (confederates) posed as students in the course. Each of them attended a different number of lectures. Woman A attended no session; woman B attended 5 sessions; woman C attended 10 sessions; woman D attended 15 sessions. It was randomly determined which sessions they attended. 2. Every time one of the women attended a lecture, she arrived at the lecture hall a few minutes before class began, walked slowly down toward the front of the hall, and sat where she could be seen by all the other students. During the lecture, she simply listened and took notes. A few minutes after class ended, the woman rose, walked slowly up toward the back of the hall, and left. In order to create conditions of mere exposure, none of the women was allowed to interact with the other students. 3. At the end of the semester the students were shown a slide-show of the four women. They were asked to fill out a questionnaire where they had to rank them on a scale of 1-7 on several traits such as attractiveness, popularity, intelligence, warmth, honesty, and success. They were also asked whether they knew the woman or if she was familiar.

Results of Moreland and Beach

It was found that even though none of the students found the women familiar, the more lectures the woman attended, the more positive traits she was attributed.

aim of Roney and Von-Hippel

to see if males would cary out dangerous tasks in the presence of an attractive female, rather than in front of a male, further more if testosterone could account for this behaviour

sample size of Roney and Von-Hippel

96 Australian adult males, mean age of 22, selected at skateboard parks

procedure of Roney and Von-Hippel

-two conditions 1 with a male researcher, the other with a female researcher -the experiment was taken in between 2 and 6 pm -skateboarders were asked to do one "easy" trick and a harder trick, one that they landed 50% of the time. -they were asked to do each trick 10 times -after taking a break they were asked to repeat this but this time either in front of the same male researcher or an attractive female 18 year old researcher blind to the hypothesis -samples of saliva were taken to measure testosterone and heart rate was measured before and after the experiment

results of Roney and Von-Hippel

-as expected skateboarders took higher risks in front of the attractive female researcher as there were less signs of aborted attempts -testosterone levels were higher in the skateboarders that had the attractive female researcher -no significant difference in heart rate between both groups

findings

-the group with the attractive female researcher took more risks, this could be due to the high(er) levels of testosterone in their body, providing an evolutionary understanding to the behaviour exhibited. -According to evolutionary theory, this makes sense. The increased risk-taking is a sign to potential mates that the male is healthy, strong, and dominant - that is, would be able to intimidate any potential rival.

aim of Ruiz-caballero and Gonzalez

Investigate if there is memory bias in people with depression

method of Ruiz-caballero and Gonzalez

Sample of collage students with depression and without depression - Gave them short word stem completion task Observed if students would recall words with negative or positive connotation

results of Ruiz-caballero and Gonzalez

Depressed people showed memory bias for negative words

conclusion of Ruiz-caballero and Gonzalez

schemas affect memory , if they were depressed they made more negative relationships as they already developed thoughts that makes them have negative perspectives

Aim of alloy et al

to see if one's thinking patterns could be used to predict the onset depression

Method of alloy et al

longitudinal study (followed for 6 years)

Participants of alloy et al

randomly selected americans

Procedure of alloy et al

-their thinking style was tested in the beginning of the study -they were placed in either the positive cognitive group (low risk) or the negative cognitive group (high risk) based on the number of tests such as the cognitive style questionnaire

Results of alloy et al

-after 6 years, the researchers found that only 1% of those in the positive thinking group developed depression, compared to 17% in the negative thinking group

Aim of Brown and Harris

To determine what factors may play a role in the higher prevalence of depression in English women.

Procedure of Brown and Harris

458 women in South London were surveyed on their daily life and depressive episodes. The researchers focused on important biographical details - life events.

Results of Brown and Harris

They found that 8% of the women had been diagnosed as depressed. 90% of those women had experienced adverse life experiences in the past year. This was compared to only 30% of women who were not depressed. — Found that most women who had experienced depression had suffered from adversity. Working class women with children were more likely to develop depression than middle class women with children. There were protective factors such as intimacy with husband or friends

Conclusion of Brown and Harris

The study showed that social factors in the form of life-stress (or serious life-events) could be linked to depression. The fact that working-class mothers were more likely to develop depression than middle-class mothers showed risk factors associated with social class. According to Brown and Harris, low social status leads to increased exposure to vulnerability factors and provoking agents, whereas high social status was associated with increased exposure to protective factors and decreased exposure to provoking agents.

Aim of Chiao and Blizinsky

Investigate rates of depression with both individualism-collectivism and genetic variations of the 5HTT gene

Method of Chiao and Blizinsky

Used correlational data to map rates of depression, IvsC and variations of the 5HTT gene.

Results of Chiao and Blizinsky

· East Asians carried the shorter versions of the serotonin transporter gene at twice the rate of Europeans and North Americans -Suffered half the rates of depression and anxiety

Conclusion of Chiao and Blizinsky

· Theorised that the mismatch might be explained by cultural factors - Collectivism and serotonin transporter gene = co-evolved - Collectivism protect individuals from depression through community

Background of Caspi et al

• there is a tendency for depression to run in families - The 5-HTT gene = serotonin transporter gene, involved in reuptake of serotonin and influences the level of serotonin----- comes in two different versions, alleles, a long one and a short one - Every human individual inherits two 5-HTT (Two long, two short, or one of each)

Aim of Caspi et al

to investigate whether the short allele in combination with stressful events increases the risk of depression

Participants of Caspi et al

847 Caucasian non-Maori children from New Zealand - opportunity sampling — (originally taking part in a longitudinal study on health and development)

Procedure of Caspi et al

Gene mapping was used - 17% had two short 5-HTT alleles - 51% had one short allele - 32% had two long alleles - After 21st birthday and before 26 years: they were interviewed about 14 different kinds of stressful life events that had occurred since(included employment, financial, housing, health, and relationship stressors) - 30% had no experience of a stressful life event - 25% had experienced one - 20% had experienced two - 11% had experienced three - 15% had experienced four or more - There was no significant difference between the three genotype groups - ALSO AT 21-26: interviewed about symptoms of MDD over the last year - 17% met criteria for a major depressive episode (42% male and 58% female)

Results of Caspi et al

1) The likelihood of a depressive episode during the last year was the same for both genotypes in case there had been no stressful event during the last five years 2) The number of negative life events did not affect carriers of two LONG ALLELES 3) There was a clear correlation between numbers of stressful events and likelihood of depressive episodes among carriers of SHORT ALLELES----- these also were more likely to have thought about committing suicide or to have attempted suicide

Conclusion of Caspi et al

• there is no direct relation between short alleles on the 5HTT gene and depression----- there is a relationship between these and incidences of stress and subsequent depression- the long alleles seem to protect against suffering depression as a result of stress- the effects of the gene adaptation are dependent on environmental exposure to stress

Aim of kendler

To determine the role of genetics in major depressive disorder.

Procedure of kendler

• 15,493 twins from the Swedish national twin registry. (zygosity verified) - Telephone interviews for major depression by DSM-5. - Asked about shared environments

Results of kendler

• Correlation of lifetime majors depression and zygosity. Concordance rates. - f-f mz: 0.44 - f-f dz: 0.16 - m-m mz: 0.31 - m-m dz: 0.11 - f-m dz: 0.11 - indicate that the heritability of major depression was significantly higher in women, mz had a higher correlation.- no correlation between the number of years lived together and depression.- no differences were seen in the roles of genetic and environmental factors in major depression.- Some genetic risk factors are sex-specific.- Stong European twin studies. - Not a single gene is responsible, many play a key role and the environment too.

Wedekind Et Al AIM

To see whether human body odors and female preferences for them are dependent on a persons MHC - genes.

Wedekind Et Al PROCEDURE

49 female participants and 44 male participants were tested to identify their MHC genes. - They were then all asked to wear a shirt that was 100% cotton. - They had to wear them for 2 days straight and then the females were asked to smell the shirts on the 3rd day and rate them from 1-10 on how pleasant they were.

Wedekind Et Al RESULTS

Women preferred men with dissimilar immune systems or MHC - genes to their own.

Wedekind Et Al EVOLUTIONARY ARGUMENTS

The smell of the MHC - genes appeals to us because they are different to the ones that we have ourselves. It means that the offspring created will have a strong immune system, and thus a greater chance of survival.

Wedekind Et Al CONCLUSION

Our attraction to other people could be due to the smell of their genes and the more dissimilar the genes are to our own the more likely we are to be attracted to the scent.

Wedekind Et Al EVALUATION WEAKNESS

It was not very generalisable to a larger population size as only students were tested.

Wedekind Et Al EVALUATION STRENGTH

The experiment was well controlled, so we can be sure that it was the persons natural odor that was judged and not anything other than this.

aim of Cahill and mcgaugh

To investigate the role of adrenaline and the amygdala on emotional memory

procedure of Cahill and mcgaugh

· Participants were divided into two groups. · Each group saw 12 slides that were accompanied by a very different story.- In the first condition,- boring story - a woman and her son who paid a visit to the son's father in a hospital where they witnessed the staff in a disaster preparation drill of a simulated accident victim - In the second condition the- interesting story - the boy was involved in a car accident where his feet were severed. - He was brought to the hospital where the surgeons reattached the injured limbs.— Two weeks later, asked q based on memory (on specific details)- a recognition task - Second study- participants in the "traumatic story" condition were injected with a beta-blocker called propranolol. · Beta-blockers interfere with the release of adrenaline; in this study it was used to prevent activation of the amygdala to prevent the formation of an emotional memory.

findings of Cahill and mcgaugh

· Original experiment participants who heard the emotionally story demonstrated better recall of specific details of the story. o They could also recall more details from the slides. - In the follow-up study they found that those that had received the beta-blocker did no better than the group that had heard the "boring" story.

conclusion of Cahill and mcgaugh

· They therefore concluded that adrenaline and activation of the amygdala play a significant role in the creation of memories linked to emotional arousal.

Aim of Antanova

Investigate the effects of scolpolamine on spatial memory

Method of Antanova

Lab experiment > Double Blind and Counter Balance

Participants of Antanova

20 healthy adults > No history of psychiatric disorders

Procedure of Antanova

(1) Participants placed into either two conditions, where they were injected with * Scolpolamine * Placebo > 50 - 90 minutes before the test (2) The participants were then put under an fMRI as they play a vr game called arena tasK (3) VR Game Procedures: > The participants spawn within an area, and their task is to locate and reach a pole > Once the pole is found, the screen goes blank for 30 seconds. Where in this time, the participants will have to actively recall and memorize the location > When the 30 seconds is over, the participants spawn in a different starting point, where they have to use their spatial memory to reach to the pole (4) The participants return in another week to recieve the opposite conditions.

Results of Antanova

Participants who received the scolpolamine injection had difficulties remembering the poles location in comparison to the participants who were injected with the placebo.

Conclusion of Antanova

Scolpolamine, an antagonist for acetylcholine, impairs the role of the hippocampus in processing spatial memory

Aim of Draganski

Find out whether the human brain can change structure in response to environmental demands

Procedure of Draganski

Random sampling design, self-selected sample - Randomly allocated a sample of volunteers into 2 groups - One : jugglers - Two : non-jugglers - Made sure that both groups had no experience of juggling before the start of the experiment-First MRI performed-Participants in the juggler group subsequently spent three months learning a classic juggling routine with three balls-Second MRI performed-Participants in the juggler group spent three months where they were instructed not to practice juggling-Third MRI performed

Results of Draganski

Prior to the start of the experiment there was no difference in brain structure-Second scan the juggler had more gray matter in some areas of the cortex mostly the mid-temporal area-Third scan differences decreased but jugglers denser gray matter

Conclusion of Draganski

If we practice something then our brain will increase and when we stop practicing then it will decrease again, but often not to its original state

aim of Odden & Rochat

to investigate how Samoan children were 'enculturated' by obersving their parents, other adults, older siblings, and peers (the role of social cognitive learning on the development of cultural norms in Samoa)

Participants of Odden & Rochat

28 children (4-12 years) in a single Samoan village (as well as their caretakers and other adults surrounding these children)

Procedure of Odden & Rochat

the researchers carried out a longitudinal study for 25 months researchers observed children in different contexts and conducted semi-structured interviews with adults and children the researchers looked at the behavior of line fishing and conceptual understanding of rank and hierarchy the also carried out a multiple-choice test

Results of Odden & Rochat

researchers found through interviews that many of the children's skills (household chores like cooking and washing and fishing) had been acquired through observational learning. they found that young males spent a lot of time watching the adult males fish, receiving no direct instruction. they also found that children of around 10 years old would borrow the adults' fishing equipment and experiment on their own without any adult supervision. by age 12, most children were able to fish on their ownchildren were skilled and learned from observation of adults and older children. Samoan children could learn rather abstract concepts by observing and listening to adults the children also had a reasonably good understanding of the complex hierarchal system although no one had taught them. it appeared that they also learned social rules regarding how to behave with people of higher rank according to observational learning as well. The children had a broad understanding of the concepts and the rituals of their society (according to multiple choice test)

Conclusion of Odden & Rochat

it appears that cultural norms are not taught directly, but rather learned through the active observation by the children of the adults in the community although other cultures may have fewer status differences between parents and children, and although parents may tell and teach children about different aspects of their culture, it can be assumed that observational learning also plays a role in enculturation elsewhere

Method of Odden & Rochat

method triangulation (longitudinal - interviews and observation)

Aim of Steele & Aronson

to see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans

Participants of Steele & Aronson

114 male and female black and white undergraduates from Stanford university

Procedure of Steele & Aronson

there were two independent variables in the study: the race of the participant and the test descriptions. the participants were given a 30-minute standardized test of verbal ability similar to the SAT. in the experimental condition (stereotype threat), participants were told that the test diagnosed intellectual ability: "a genuine test of your verbal abilities and limitations" in the control condition, participants were told that the purpose of the research had nothing to do with intellectual ability: "to better understand the psychological factors involved in solving verbal problems" participants were randomly assignedto one of the conditions; however, they made sure that there were equal numbers of participants in each condition. the assumption was that linking the test to ability would activate the existing racial stereotypes, so black participants face the threat of fulfilling the stereotype

Results of Steele & Aronson

there was no significant difference between male and female participants. African-Americans did poorly when they believed that the test was a test of their ability, but did just as well as the white Americans when they believed that it was a test of problem-solving skills. in other words, African-American participants performed worse than their white counterparts in the stereotype threat condition while their performance equaled that of their white counterparts in the control condition

Conclusion of Steele & Aronson

when a person is aware of a negative stereotype or expectation, the amount anxiety may increase and performance will hence decrease. these effects can, however, be decreased by awareness of that stereotype.

Method of Steele & Aronson

laboratory experiment IV: race of the participant and the test descriptions DV: performance on test

What was the aims of the study by Levine et al?

To investigate how the personality of a city might be related to helping behaviour in non-emergency situations, in a wide range of cultures in large cities and the world in relation to four specific community variables

What 4 community variables were considered in the Levine study?

1. Population size 2. Pace of life 3. Economic prosperity 4. Cultural values (e.g. individualism, collectivism or simpatia)

What was the design of the study by Levine et al?

Quasi-experiment (independent variable was naturally occurring). It used an independent measures design, a correlation was used to analyse the results of this cross-cultural research.

What was the sample of the study by Levine et al?

23 countries, The study used an opportunity sample and around 50 participants in each of the cities were tested

What was the first step of the procedure of the study by Levine et al?

1. Able participant selected 2. Selected when approaching a second potential participant who crossed a predetermined line

What was the procedure for the dropped pen condition of the Levine study?

Experimenter dropped pen 10 feet from participant (participant was scored as having helped if they called out to or returned the pen to the experimenter)

What was the procedure for the Injured leg condition of the Levine study?

Experimenter walked with a limp and wore a leg brace, they dropped a stack of magazines and attempted to pick them up (Participant was scored to have helped if they began to help without offering)

What was the procedure for the blind man crossing the road condition of the Levine study?

Experimenter wore dark glasses and held a white cane and waited at s street corner until someone offered to help (helped if they informed the experimenter that the light was green)

What countries were considered the most and least helpful?

Highest measure of helping = Brazil (1.66) Lowest Measure of helping = Malaysia (-2.04)

What results were gathered from the Levine et al study?

• Simpatia countries (e.g. Brazil) were considered significantly more helpful than non-simpatia - Negative correlation between economic productivity and helping behaviour (less economically productive countries were more helpful) - People in faster cities were less likely to help

Aim of Lueck and Wilson

Investigate the factors that can affect acculturation stress in Asian immigrants to America

Method of Lueck and Wilson

semi-structured interviews

Procedure of Lueck and Wilson

• The sample of this study was around 2,000 Asian-Americans. Around half of the sample were born in Asia and had immigrated to America, while the other half were the children of immigrants. A variety of Asian cultures were represented (including Chinese, Vietnamese, and others). The interviewers had a similar cultural background to the participants, and could speak their native language. - The participants were interviewed about their acculturation experiences. The interviews were semi-structured, meaning that all participants were asked a number of prepared, standard questions, while additional follow-up questions could also be asked later.

Results of Lueck and Wilson

• Around 70% of participants reported feelings of acculturation stress - Participants who were fully bilingual had the lowest rates of acculturation stress. Being fully bilingual helped participants maintain strong ties to their Asian culture while also being able to integrate in American society. - Experiences of discrimination, prejudice or stereotyping significantly increased acculturation stress - Participants who shared similar values with their family had lower acculturation stress, perhaps because of less family conflict over different cultural values - Participants who were very satisfied with their economic opportunities in American also had lower acculturation stress

Conclusion of Lueck and Wilson

Acculturation stress is very common amongst immigrants. Language proficiency, family cohesion, economic opportunities, and prejudice are all factors that affect acculturation stress