Issues of life and death

attitudes to creation - Humanists

-Humanists believe in no God, and therefore reject religious explanations about creation

-Stephen Hawking was an Atheist and viewed the universe as the result of a cosmic event, not a divine one

-he believes in the Big Bang theory, which states that the universe probably began about 14 billion years ago due to a dramatic cosmic event called the Big Bang and that it began as a single point that rapidly expanded to form particles and atoms

-non-religious people argue that the universe created itself due to the law of gravity and so it is unnecessary to suggest that there needed to be a God involved in the creation of the universe, challenging the ideas of religious believers e.g. Christians who believed that God created everything in 7 days

-Charles Darwin's theory of evolution was published in his book 'On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection' in 1859, outlining the idea that human life was formed as a result of evolution, which most non-religious people interpret to mean that life evolved by chance, not because of a God or cosmic designer

-the theory of evolution teaches that at an early stage in the development of life, there were single-celled organisms that became more complex as they reproduced, due to variations between generations which resulted in natural selection and survival of the fittest as those with features that were not beneficial died out, which eventually resulted in human life

-evolution is supported by Richard Dawkins, an Atheist, who is known for asking 'who designed the designer?'

attitudes to creation - Christians

-Genesis 1: God created the universe in six days, he created the universe first ( day 1 = light; day 2 = sky; day 3 = land, sea and plants; day 4 = sun, moon and stars; day 5 = animals; day 6 = humans ), men and women were created together by just speaking

-Genesis 2: God created the universe over an unspecified time, he began with a man and then created the contents of the earth around him, man was created out of dust and God's own breath, God created women last, after everything else

-Creationists ( Literal Christians ) argue that scripture tells us exactly how God created the universe and so believe the creation story word for word, and will not challenge it, since they interpret the Bible literally

-Liberals have no difficulty in accepting scientific accounts and believe that scripture can be interpreted to allow for the insights of science, and the theories complement their beliefs and helps them to understand God's creation even more

-some may argue that the Big Bang could have been caused by God and the theory of evolution roughly matches up to the order of creation in the Bible ( from simple to complex forms )

attitudes to creation - Muslims

-Islam teaches that Allah has absolute authority over everything in the universe and that the Qur'an is Allah's revelation to humankind, which means that Muslims can trust the Qur'an to be accurate in accounting for Allah's involvement in creation

-The Qur'an says that Allah created the universe over six days, formed everything from smoke ( including the sun, moon, stars and planets ), made all the creatures, angels, vegetation and rain, made Adam out of clay, and breathed life and power into him, and made Adam and Hawwa ( Eve ) from a single soul

-some Muslims are Creationists and they believe that the Qur'an has authority over human reasoning and evidence because it is factually true therefore, since the Qur'an seems to disagree with the Big Bang theory, they would reject scientific accounts of the origin of the universe

-other Muslims argue that there is no contradiction between the Qur'an and modern science, therefore, the Big Bang is how Allah formed the universe, and they believe that the scientific account is incomplete because it describes how Allah created the universe without mentioning him, since the universe can't have come about by itself

-some will accept the idea of evolution, but not human evolution because the Qur'an makes specific references to Adam being created by God

attitudes to stewardship - Humanists

-stewardship is taking care of the environment

-Humanists completely agree with the idea of stewardship because, by using situation ethics and utilitarianism, they would argue that it is a loving thing to do: to look after the resources the world provides for future generations, and to make the world as good as possible for all people

-Humanists for a Better World ( H4BW ) is a programme run by Humanists UK, which aims to bring together Humanists who want to campaign on environmental issues as they believe that we have a responsibility to care for the environment because it is the only one we have, and it is the only way to ensure that the world is sustainable for future generations

attitudes to stewardship - Christians

-Christian scripture says that God gave human beings dominion over all living creatures: 'rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky'

-some have argued that this means God has given them the gift of using the world's resources however they like

-most Christians dislike this idea, and say that we have no right to exploit the Earth because God put Adam into the Garden of Eden to work hard and take care of it

-most Christians today believe that humans share some of God's qualities, such as reason, morality and responsibility, because we were made in his image and therefore humans have been appointed stewards of God's creation and should care for the planet and manage its resources

-dominion is now understood as a responsibility to manage the land and the creatures within it, and so due to their belief in stewardship, Christians are strong supporters of environmental sustainability

attitudes to stewardship - Muslims

-Muslims believe the world has been created by Allah as a place of worship and human beings are his khalifas, who have been given the responsibility to govern the world on Allah's behalf: a hadith says the Earth is green and beautiful and God has appointed you his stewards

-the Qur'an says that all creation belong to Allah and so Muslims believe the world does not belong to us and we do not have the right to waste or spoil it

-Islam teaches that there is a balance in the universe known as the fitrah, and that the survival of the planet relies on this balance being maintained

-the Qur'an instructs Muslims not to interfere with the natural balance of Allah's creation and so khalifas must work to maintain the fitrah of the world by using the earth's resources fairly and frugally, therefore, environmental sustainability is important to Muslims

attitudes to sanctity of life - Humanists

-sanctity of life is the belief that life is precious

-some non-religious people believe that although we are all products of evolution, humans are superior to animals as they are more intelligent

-other non-religious people argue that since we are all creatures, humans are of no greater worth than any other animal

-the Atheist philosopher Peter Singer argues that a life has value not because it is created by God but because it can perform the tasks expected of its species, and therefore, a fish that can swim is a valuable fish and a human that can move, think and communicate is a valuable human, and neither are more valuable than the other

attitudes to sanctity of life - Christians

-Christians believe human life was created in God's image by God himself and is scared

-God has a plan for each individual person and as Jeremiah 1:5 shows, this plan can be in place before a human is even born: 'before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I set you apart; I appointed you as a prophet to the nations'

-many Christians believe that because life is God-given and sacred, only God should choose when to take it away

-other Christians argue that a sacred life is not about the length of time it lasts, especially if that life contains extensive suffering, and instead, a sacred life is about the extent to which a person experiences the joy of the gift of life

-God intends for Christians to show compassion to those who suffer and respect their life, but not at all costs, therefore, quality of life is a vital consideration

attitudes to sanctity of life - Muslims

-the Qur'an tells Muslims that Allah is the creator who gives life and is the only one with the authority to take it away

-each person is created by Allah, who has made life sacred: 'it is God who created you and provided for you, who will cause you to die and then give you life again'

attitudes to euthanasia - Humanists

-euthanasia means a gentle, easy death

-it is sometimes known as 'mercy killing' and involves ending a life early to avoid unnecessary suffering

-there are different types of euthanasia: voluntary euthanasia ( when a person has expressed a wish to die and clearly asked for help to do so ), involuntary euthanasia ( when a person cannot express a wish to die, so the decision is made for them, e.g. a person is in a coma ), active euthanasia ( where the death of a person is caused through direct action, e.g. through taking medication to end their life faster ) and passive euthanasia ( where treatment is removed so that death is faster, e.g. by removing a feeding tube or respirator )

-it is currently illegal to perform euthanasia in the UK and in many other countries around the globe, however, sometimes people travel to places like Switzerland, where clinics can legally allow doctors to give patients the means to administer their own medication and end their own life early, which is known as assisted suicide

-for Peter Singer, euthanasia is acceptable in cases where someone does not have a valuable life, so he argues that someone with a disability that prevents them from having a good quality of life, or someone in a persistent vegetative state, should be able to be euthanised

-Singer argues that we are guilty of speciesism when we are prepared to test on or kill a healthy, able-bodied animal and yet will fight for the life of someone who is barely conscious

-Humanists do not consider human life to be sacred in a religious sense, but as they believe they only have one life and there is no afterlife, they do consider human life to be important

attitudes to euthanasia - 'Dignity in Dying' Movement

-most Humanists strongly believe in personal choice, and this extends to choosing when to end their life

-the 'Dignity in Dying' movement campaigns for individual choice over when we die, who is present and how we are treated

-it argues for access to information regarding our options and to good-quality end of life care, which means that a person could choose the time and manner of their death and could have their loved ones present with them

attitudes to euthanasia - Christians

-the Catholic Church strictly forbids euthanasia as it violates the commandment not to murder, the primary precept to preserve life, and the principle of sanctity of life

-in the eyes of the Catholic Church, anyone who assists with euthanasia is guilty of murder and anyone who performed euthanasia for themselves commits suicide, which is also a sin

-instead, the Church regards end of life care through hospices to be the best approach, which allows God to choose when to take life away

-the Church teaches that suffering has a purpose and God does not give people more than they can bear

-among Quakers, there is no single view on euthanasia

-some Quakers argue that if we offer the right support, euthanasia is unnecessary

-others argue that when a person is in extreme suffering or experiences a loss of dignity, it is more important that we have compassion for their situation and prioritise their quality of life, rather than the quantity of it

attitudes to euthanasia - Muslims

-Islam teaches that no matter what state the body is in, the ruh ( soul ) is still perfect

-while it is vital to show compassion and kindness to those who suffer, euthanasia is always wrong and anyone who facilitates it is guilty of the sin of zulm ( depriving someone of their rights or failing to fulfil a duty towards someone ), and it goes against Allah's plan

-there are some Muslims who believe that even passive euthanasia is haram and would object to DNR ( 'do not resuscitate' ) orders

-they may argue that pain and suffering are part of Allah's plan to help them prepare for the afterlife

-however, the Islamic code of medical ethics says that it is futile to try to keep someone alive when they are in a persistent vegetative state or when there is no hope of a cure, which means that for many Muslims, turning off life support is acceptable but giving medication to speed up death is haram

-however, many Shi'a Muslims would not allow life support to be removed unless there is a complete death of all organs

attitudes to abortion - Humanists

-abortion is the process of ending a pregnancy without it resulting in a live baby

-someone might have an abortion if the woman is too young to manage being a mother, the parents cannot afford to support the baby, the pregnancy or birth would result in health problems for the woman or baby, the woman has been raped or if the woman does not want to be a mother

-abortion in the UK is legal until 24 weeks; after this it is still allowed if the foetus has a severe abnormality or there is a grave risk of death for the mother

-some pro-choice people argue that women should be allowed to choose to have an abortion at any time for any reason

-others argue for abortion but only as an option for women in difficult situations

-people who are pro-life argue that the unborn foetus is a human life and so must be protected, and they argue that it is not up to an individual person to decide whether the foetus lives or dies as all human life must be protected and respected

-whether a person is pro-life or pro-choice can depend on their view of when a life begins

-most Humanists are pro-choice because legal abortion is better for the many, since women will be able to access the procedure in a safe and regulated way, whereas if it were illegal, there would be no safety

-Peter Singer argues that we are guilty of speciesism when we are prepared to test on or kill a healthy, able-bodied animal and yet will fight for the life of a foetus that is not fully formed

attitudes to abortion - Christians

-some Christians believe that since life is sacred, abortion is wrong

-the Catholic Church considers abortion to be a sin in any circumstance, which is a pro-life position

-the foetus is a person from conception

-abortion goes against Natural Law

-the primary precepts to reproduce and defend innocent life mean that abortion is sinful

-it is against the commandment that forbids murder and it disregards the sanctity of life

-however, the law of double effect ( when an action has two outcomes, one intended and one unintended ) allows a doctor to act to save a woman's life even if the unwanted side effect is that the pregnancy ends, but the aim must never be to end the pregnancy

-the Church of England tries to balance compassion for the mother with responsibility towards the unborn life

-it rejects abortion in place of contraception and supports alternatives to abortion, but argues that if a woman's life is at risk, the child is severely disabled or in cases of rape, abortion may be a compassionate answer

-in these cases, abortion should take place as early in the development of the foetus as possible

attitudes to abortion - Muslims

-Islam teaches that abortion goes against Allah's plans and is always wrong

-no one has the right to take their own or anyone else's life and the killing of one ruh ( or soul ) is as terrible as killing the whole of humanity: 'if anyone kills a person, it is as if he kills all mankind, while if any saves a life, it is as if he saves the lives of all mankind', and those who kill will face punishment on the Day of Judgement

-the Qur'an does not explicitly refer to abortion, but it offers guidance that may be relevant, e.g. it tells Muslims not to kill their children out of poverty, so this is understood to mean that abortion is haram if it is done because the couple are poor: 'do not kill your children fearing poverty - we will provide for you and for them'

-some Muslims believe the foetus is a person at conception, and if so, an abortion cannot take place

-however, many Muslims do accept that in extreme situations, an abortion can be permitted

-those who regard ensoulment ( the point at which Allah gives the foetus a soul ) to be the point of personhood may allow that the mother's rights are greater than the child's until this time

-only if the mother's life is at risk can abortion be permitted as the lesser of two evils, but the further along in the pregnancy, the greater the wrongdoing

attitudes to life after death - Christians

-Christian beliefs about life after death are based on the resurrection of Jesus, who's death made atonement for human sin and who's resurrection after three days defeated the power of sin and death to restore humans' relationship with God: 'I am the resurrection and the life'

-many Christians believe a human being is made of two parts: a physical body and a spiritual soul which, after death, leaves the body to be united with God in heaven

-however, this is not consistent with the Bible and so some Christians believe that whilst humans have a body and a soul, they are inseparable, which means that for there to be a life after death, the soul must be housed in a body again

-Christians are taught that death is not the end and, like Christ, people will be resurrected and their souls restored to their bodies before they face judgement for the how they have lived their lives

-scripture suggests that at the resurrection, people's bodies will be a little different: 'if there is a natural body, there is also a spiritual body'

-Christians believe that after resurrection everyone will be judged by God

-there is disagreement over when the judgement will happen: some believe they will be judged immediately after death, others believe they must all wait for the Day of Judgement and others believe that both judgements will occur

-the Bible teaches that if people have not been faithful to God through their beliefs and actions, they can expect to be punished in hell

-liberal Christians may see these teachings as symbolic of the truth that all actions have consequences

-other Christians may believe that heaven and hell are literal places, or that heaven is a spiritual union with God while hell is separation from him

attitudes to life after death - Muslims

-akhirah ( life after death ) is a fundamental belief for Muslims

-death is seen to be a gift as it enables a Muslim to move to the next world to be with Allah

-all religious and moral behaviour ( such as performing salah or donating to charity ) is preparation for akhirah

-Islam teaches that the earthly body is a vehicle for the ruh

-at death, the ruh is removed from the body by the angel Azrail and transferred to barzakh ( a state of waiting for the soul )

-the Qur'an says that on the Day of Judgement, a trumpet will sound that destroys all of creation

-at the sound of a second trumpet, all ruhs will return to their bodies which will be resurrected

-they will stand before Allah and face Allah's judgement

-each will be given a book containing their good and bad deeds, which will be weighed on scales and then they will cross a bridge over the fires of Jahannam

-some will cross safely to Jannah while others will fall into the fire

attitudes to the afterlife - Christians

-the Catholic Church teaches that at death, everyone will receive personal judgement

-a Catholic who has repented of their sin can be reunited with Christ in heaven, while those who die in mortal sin will be punished in hell

-Catholics who die but have not yet repented of their sin will continue to be purified in purgatory

-on Christ's return, everyone will be resurrected and receive the last judgement, and at this point God will restore heaven and earth to a new glory and all souls will be reunited with their bodies

-in contrast, a more diverse range of beliefs is held among Quakers

-some Quakers do not believe in an 'individual survival' after death but think that the good and evil people have done lives on in those who come after them

-others believe the soul survives after death, potentially in either heaven or hell

-few accept an eternal hell since they believe God is loving and wishes to save all humanity

attitudes to the afterlife - Muslims

-most Muslims believe that Jannah and Jahannam are physical places

-Jannah is a garden of contentment full of flowers, fruits and fountains

-Jahannam is a state of torment and terror where the damned are separated from Allah and face boiling water, fire and smoke

-the Qur'an teaches that Jahannam is eternal unless God wills it, but some argue that it is only eternal for non-believers, whereas others believe that Muslims who have died in a state of sin can be purified in Jahannam and then enter Jannah

funerals - Humanists

-a Humanist funeral is non-religious and so will not contain any reference to God or religion

-there is often music, some thoughts on life and death from a non-religious viewpoint, a tribute to the person who has died, and non-religious poetry or other readings

-respect will be shown for the dead person but there will be no suggestion that they live on elsewhere

-there will be a time for reflection when friends and family will remember the person who has died in their own way

-it is popular to dispose of the body in a way that is environmentally friendly

-many choose to have biodegradable coffins made of cardboard or wicker, while others may choose cremation or a coffin that reflects something of the person's character

-some prefer to plant a tree in the person's memory rather than have a headstone

funerals - Christians

-when a Christian is close to death, they are often given the last rites, which are prayers for a dying person asking God for forgiveness for their sins

-they may also be given Holy Communion to help them be united with Christ in heaven

-at the funeral, the priest will repeat the words of Jesus from John 11:25 to remind listeners that eternal life is gained through faith in Christ: 'I am the resurrection and the life. The one who believes in me will live, even though they die; and whoever lives by believing in me will never die.'

-the funeral will be held in a church or crematorium

-there will be readings, prayers, hymns, a sermon and a talk, remembering the person who has died

-candles are lit to show that Jesus is the light of the world who guides Christians through their lives to heaven

-traditionally Christians would have been buried so their bodies could await the last judgement

-it is increasingly popular for Christians to choose cremation

-many believe that it is more environmentally friendly to be cremated, since the body is not needed after death and God will restore them to their spiritual bodies at the last judgement

-limited space in graveyards may also influence their decision

funerals - Muslims

-if possible, the bed of a dying Muslim should be turned to face Makkah with their face in the direction of the Ka'ba

-surrounded by family they should recite the Shahadah ( 'there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah' )

-if they cannot do this, it may be whispered into their ear just as it was at birth, which demonstrates the expectation that a Muslim will return to their creator

-after death, the body is given a ritual wash by family members

-it should not be cremated, nor should any part be removed for donation, so that it is prepared for the Day of Judgement

-the dead are buried as quickly as possible after death, in clean, white sheets that cover the whole body

-coffins are not always used because Muslims believe they are created from the earth and will return to it

-however, coffins are more likely to be used in Britain, when they should be very simple to emphasise that all are equal before Allah

-the funeral prayers should be performed by at least one Muslim, usually in an open space

-the prayers emphasise the greatness of Allah and belief in his power to resurrect the dead

-the grave is dug parallel to Makkah and the body of the deceased is placed on their right-side, facing Makkah

-the funeral should be simple to emphasise that there is no difference to Allah between the rich and the poor: everyone is the same in death

attitudes to worship at graves - Muslims

-most Muslims believe worship at graves is wrong because it is haram to pray to the dead for help as all prayers should be addressed only to Allah

-Shi'a Muslims traditionally visit the graves of the Imams, or relatives of the Imams, but they do not worship them and they only ask for tawassul, which is where someone uses the dead person's name or authority to give them a higher chance of their prayer being heard by Allah

-some Sunni Muslims consider this to be shirk, which is a sin