Period 8 & 9: 1945-1980, Cold War, affluent Society, Civil Rights, Vietnam War, Great Society, Nixon, Carter, Reagan, H.W. Bush, Clinton, W. Bush, Obama, Trump, Biden

Key Points of Truman’s Containment Policy

• Containment was the U.S. foreign towards the Soviets and communism. 

• Used from the time Truman doctrine was implemented in 1947, till fall of Berlin wall in 1989

Role of George Kennan

• They were a Diplomat and specialist on Soviets

• They wrote about containing the spread of Soviet influence or the policy of “Containment”

Truman Doctrine

• Stopped Soviet influence in Greece and Turkey. 

• In 1947, Truman ask for $400 million for economic aid in order to support the free people resisting subjugations from outside pressures (Communism)

Marshall Plan

• After WWII, Europe’s economy was devastated making them vulnerable to Soviet Influence since the people were disappointed with the Democratic government, making facism and communism look more appealing.

• Their goal was to give aid to European countries. Their underlying reason: To stop the spread of communism. 

• This was crucial to Truman's policy of containment.

The NATO Alliance:

• 10 Western European nations join the U.S. and Canada for a defensive alliance. North Atlantic Treaty Organization

• The U.S. broke away from the traditional foreign policy of isolationism.

The Berlin Airlift 1948

• Fearing the rise of Germany, Soviets blocked aid into Western Berlin, located deep in the Soviet Zone.

• Truman ordered a massive airlift of food, fuel, and other supplies to aid the citizens of W. Berlin.

• This was a successful test of containment.

The “Fall” of China

• Mao Zedong and the Communists defeated Chiang Kai-Shek and the Nationalists, they declared China as the People's republic of China.

• The Collapse of Nationalist China was viewed as a devastating defeat for America and its Cold War allies. The fall ofChina had the following consequences: 1) The U.S. refused to recognize the government of Beijing. 2) The U.S. viewed the revolution in China as a great threat. 3) This led to anti-communist hysteria in the U.S.

The Korean War

• The United Nations and Korea: 1) North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950. 2) Without the presence of the Soviets, Truman asked the United Nations Security Council to approve a measure condemning North Korea’s actions. This was the 1st military action of the United Nations. 3) Korea fought under U.N. supervision, contrarily, Vietnam was fought just by the U.S.

• A Limited War: 1) Containment was extended into Asia. 2) Many felt that the democrats lost China, so Truman became more determined to defend South korea

• Truman's Firing of MacArthur: 1) China entered the war when the U.N. forces approached the Yalu River, the border between China and North Korea. 2) MacArthur wanted to bomb China and some other locations in North Korea, Truman did not. MacArthur publicly attacked Truman's limited warfare approach, so Truman relieved MacArthur of his command.

• Peace Agreement: 1) An armistice was signed in July 1953. 2) This set the border between both countries at the 38th parallel, a demilitarized zone.

• Truman's Integration of the Armed Forces: 1) Prior to the Korean conflict, military units were segregated. 2) Truman desegregated the military before the Korean War.

The Vietnam War (1946-1963) and Military Involvement after 1974

• Containment and Vietnam: 1) The policy of containment led us to war in Vietnam. 2) Our involvement grew because of our commitments and assumptions about containment.

• The French Withdrawal: 1) The French returned to exert control over Vietnam after WWII. 2) Ho chi Minh and the Viet Minh defeat the French in Dien Bien Phu, eventually leading to the French leaving in 1954. 3) The U.S. refused to sign the Geneva Accords (Planning to split Vietnam into the North as Communist and the South as free), and soon replaced the French in Indochina.

• The Domino Effect: 1) The idea that if one country falls to communism, other nearby nations will fall as well. 2) The U.S. feared that weak economic nations in Southeast Asia would fall to communism, which would lead us to lose the territorial gains we got during WWII.

Sputnik

• Launched in 1957, Soviets put the 1st earth orbiting Satellite in space.

• Americans were shocked, and Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958 because they feared that the Soviet Union was ahead of the U.S. in terms of technological advancement.

• Education became an issue of national security. Congress passed the National Defense education Act of 1958, which expanded federal money to funding programs in mathematics, foreign languages, and the sciences.

Diplomatic Crisis during the Cold War

• Happened under Republicans

• Egypt seizes the Suez Canal in 1956

• Castro takes control of Cuba, Cuban revolution. '53-59

• Soviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane in 1960, which the U.S. flew after Khrushchev rejected the open-skies proposal (Surveillance overflights of each territory to reassure they weren’t preparing to attack). This led to Khrushchev denouncing the U.S. and walking away from the Paris Summit.

Background Information to McCarthyism (The Second Red Scare 1950-1956)

• Wisconsin Senator McCarthy started to accuse the U.S. State Department of being infested with Communist sympathizers after WWII.

• He made these accusations with no real evidence.

The Rise of McCarthyism

• Factors that contributed to the rise of McCarthyism: 1) The fall of China to Mao. 2) Soviet development of the atomic bomb in 1949. 3) The policy of containment 4) The idea that Soviets had filtrated U.S. agencies, such as the cases of Alger Hiss and the Rosenbergs.

• Alger Hiss: A State Department official accused of leaking information to the Soviet Union. His hearing led HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee.) to charge him with perjury. He couldn’t be tried for spying due to the statute of limitations (Couldn’t be charged for acts of espionage from five years prior, the evidence against him was from a decade ago). Also, Richard Nixon made a name for himself during these hearings.

• Rosenbergs: They were charged with giving atomic secrets to the Soviets. Executed with little evidence, which was mostly from her brother.

McCarthy’s Tactics:

• He directly attacked any supposed communist or communist sympathizers, anyone was fair game.

• He played on the fear that our government agencies had been infiltrated by communism

• He created a climate of paranoia, which led to hysteria against communism.

• This was essentially a modern day witch hunt", where millions of Americans were investigated or had to take oaths of loyalty.

• Led to the Hollywood Blacklist, 500 industry employees were investigated, and many careers were ruined.

• He tried to use fear for his own political advantage.

The Fall of McCarthy

• 1954, McCarthy accused the army of being infiltrated by communists

• Army-McCarthy Hearings: He accused the Secretary of Army Robert Stevens of being Communist. Eventually his lack of evidence and demeanor during his hearing led to the Senate formally condemning him for "conduct unbecoming a member." He died 3 years later.

President Harry S. Truman (1945-1953)

• Executive Order 8891 desegregated the army in 1948, Truman’s most important contribution to Civil Rights.

• Dixiecrats walk out of the Democratic National Convention of 1948 as they opposed Truman's civil rights legislation. This marks the shift of the Southern Democrats into modern day Republicans.

Brown vs. board of Education of Topeka, 1954

• The Supreme Court deemed segregation in public schools unconstitutional since there was supposed to be equal protections under the law.

• They ruled that "Separate but equal facilities are inherently unequal." which reversed the  "Plessy V. Ferguson." ruling.

• NAACP continues to use the "equal protection" clause of the 14th amendment to file suits in courts.

President Dwight D. Eisenhower

• Dwight D. Eisenhower: 1953-1961

• 1957, Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock Arkansas High to enforce a court ordered desegregation.

• Ike believed that individual rights and freedoms needed to be protected by the Executive Branch after the federal court's decision.

• Ike was not a vigorous supporter of civil rights legislation, he mainly was in the backseat when it came to civil rights, however he believed that the federal court’s decision had to be enforced.

• Civil Rights Commission created in 1957, purpose to investigate and report on cases involving discrimination.

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

• MLK Jr’s goal was to achieve the peaceful integration of the races in all areas of society.

• He used the theory of nonviolent civil disobedience, by Thoreau, who was a Transcendentalist

• He was the leader of the non-violent Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).

• His ideas  most closely relate to Gandhi, who used passive resistance.

• 1955, Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, led by MLK Jr. and the SCLC

The Sit-In Movement

• Greensboro, N. Carolina, 1960. Four students led a movement to protest segregation in public facilities, restaurants, etc.

• Sit-ins are perfect examples of civil disobedience.

An Affluent Society (1950s)

• The decade after WWII was Characterized by the following: 1) Unprecedented prosperity. 2) A population explosion-baby boom. 3) rapid and extensive suburbanization.

Woman in the Workplace

• After WWII, many women left their industrial jobs, for returning soldiers.

• Rosie the Riveter and the role of the housewife was ideal for married women.

•  Love Lucy, Father Knows Best, and the honeymooners were all T.V. shows which portrayed women as housewives.

Interstate Highways and the Growth of Suburbs

• The Federal Highway Act of 1956 provided money for 41,000 miles of highways in the U.S.

• This was to allow for easier transportation which boosted the economy, while making it easier for evacuation in case the Soviet Union attacked America (Cold War Fears)

• This vastly accelerated the growth of suburbia as they allowed easy travel from the suburbs to cities.

Social Critics

• Social commentators criticized  the conformity of postwar culture

• Leading Critics: 1) William Whyte, “The Organization Man” 2) David Riesman, “The Lonely Crowd”. 3) Sloan Wilson, “The Man in Gray Flannel Suit. 4) John Galbraith, “The Affluent Society.”

• Critics called most television and programming a “vast wasteland.”

• They were against conformity and a lack of individualism

• They were essentially the counter culture.

Nonconformists/Beatniks

• Beatniks were those who were disillusioned with the war and culture

• Jack Kerouac and other Beat Generation writers rejected middle-class culture and conformity.

• “On the Road”, by Kerouac expressed the alienation and disillusionment he felt toward mainstream American culture.

Cultural Rebels

• Rock and Roll: Emerged in the 1950's, it was inspired and influenced by black musical traditions of rhythm & blues.

• Abstract Expressionist Artists: Jackson Pollock, he created works that instead of representing reality,  expressed the artists’ state of mind.

• Movie Stars: James Dean and Marlon Brando symbolized youthful rebellion.

The New Frontier (1961-1963)

• The Election of 1960: 1) JFK was the 1st Roman Catholic President in U.S. History. 2) This election was the 1st to have  televised debates, these were between Kennedy and Nixon.

• Camelot: 1) JFK was the youngest elected president 2) JFK promoted his "New Frontier" platform, which was his domestic policy focusing on increasing aid to education, providing health insurance to the elderly, and creating a Department of Urban Affairs. 3) His presidency was called Camelot because of the JFKs’ status of both John and Jaqueline, named after the court of King Arthur

The Great Society: Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1968)

• This continued JFK’s policies

• Primary goals: 1) To use the Federal Government to enhance social welfare. 2) To use education and job training to help disadvantaged people overcome the cycle of poverty limiting their opportunities.

• Legislative Achievements: 1) Civil Rights Act of 1964 which outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. 2) The Voting Rights Act of 1965 which ended racial discrimination for voting 3) Medicare and Medicaid. 4) War on Poverty. 5) Led to significant aid to education.

• Similarities between the New Deal and the Great Society: 1) New Deal and Great Society (As well as the Progressive Era) used the Federal  government to enhance social

• welfare. 2) Both led to government sponsored employment programs, support for the arts, both encouraged federal programs for housing construction, and both used federal legislation to help the elderly.

• Differences between the New Deal and Great Society:  1) Preschool education for disadvantaged children was only in the Great Society, not the New Deal. 2) The Great Society programs included federal legislature protecting the civil liberties of African Americans, the New Deal programs did not.

The Civil Rights Movement

• The Leadership of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr: 1) In 1963 he led a campaign against segregation in Birmingham. 2) "Letters-from Birmingham" jail. He believed that civil disobedience is justified in the face of unjust laws. 3) Police Commissioner Eugene Bull Conner ordered his police to use dogs on marchers. The T.V. audience was horrified. 4) Outraged by the violence, President Kennedy called on Congress to pass a comprehensive civil rights bill that would end legal discrimination on the basis of race. 5) 1963, during the March on Washington, MLK Jr. gave his “I Have a Dream" Speech. 6) 1964 ,LBJ signs the Civil Rights Acts of 64 which banned racial discrimination in public facilities.

• The Sit-in Movement:  1) Started in 1960 in Greensboro, N.C. 2) It was an example of non-violence.

• Black Power: 1) movement of the late 1960s which advocated that African Americans establish control of their political and economic life, such as the beliefs of Marcus Garvey who believed in unity, pride in the African cultural heritage, and complete autonomy, believing that they should establish a nation in Africa. 2) Leaders were Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam, Stokely Carmichael and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) (Violent), & Huey Newton and the Black Panthers.

• Freedom Riders: In the Summer of 1962, College students protests led to interstate busing,

• Freedom Summer: A voter drive in Mississippi which got more African Americans to vote.

The Women’s Rights Movement

• Betty Friedan: 1) Wrote the Feminine Mystique, and was the first President of the National Organization for Women (NOW). 2) NOW was founded in 1966 in order to challenge discrimination in the workplace. 3) Feminism tended to be a movement for middle-class women as the poor were too busy working to survive and the rich enjoyed their life.

• Expansion of Women's Rights: 1) Equal Credit Opportunity of 1974, gave women the right to get a credit card in their own name (Instead of Husband’s) 2) Roe v Wade gave women abortion rights 3) Title IX of the Civil rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex in education programs and activities. 4) Affirmative action regulation (E.R.A. started, but it never passed.)

Latin America (Cold War)

• Alliance for Progress: 1) JFK in 1961, aimed to establish economic cooperation between North and South America. 2) This was intended to counter the emerging Communist threat from Cuba.

• The Bay of Pigs: 1) A CIA backed scheme to topple Castro in Cuba (1961). 2) The invasion failed, and JFK refused to rescue insurgents. 3) This event damaged the U.S.’s credibility and boosted Castro's. 4) Assassination attempts by the U.S on Castro brought him closer to the Soviets. 5) The Cuban Missile Crisis negotiations were tied to the promise of no more military invasions of Cuba.

• The Cuban Missile Crisis: 1) Soviets sent technicians to Cuba to set up ICBM silos. 2) Soviets withdrew missiles after JFK pledged to not attack Castro under the condition that the U.S> take their ICBMs out of Turkey.

Vietnam: The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)

• . An incident in the Gulf of Tonkin: 1) North Vietnamese attacked a U.S. destroyer in the Gulf of Tonkin. 2) Never fully explain what really happened

• The Resolution: 1) Congress uses the incident to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. 2) Authorized LBJ to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the U.S. and to prevent further aggression". 3) Gave LBJ a “blank check” to escalate the war in Vietnam. 4) This led to the number of troops in Vietnam being dramatically reduced.

The Tet Offensive, 1968

• What happened: 1) January, 1698, Vietcong launched a series of attacks on 27 key South Vietnamese cities, including the heavily guarded capital, Saigon. This happened on the Vietnamese New Year or “Tet”. Our guard was down. 2)The Viet Cong suffered heavy losses, and eventually retreated.

• Consequences: 1) The Tet offensive undermined LBJ's credibility. 2) Public support for the war declined dramatically and increased anti-war sentiment in the U.S. as people became to realize that this war would be costly.

Protesting Groups (Anti-War/Counterculture)

Groups protesting various aspects of society: 1) African Americans 2) American Indians 3) Women 4) Youth, Woodstock and the hippie movement. 5) Hispanics Americans

Issues (Anti-war/Counterculture)

• Issues being protested by the various groups: 1) Vietnam War 2) Exclusion of women from the mainstream of American Life. 3) bureaucratization and impersonality of American life. 4) Marginal economic status of minorities. 5) the materialism of American Society.

Dissension of 1968

• Assassination of RFK left the Democratic Party in disarray.

• VP Herbert Humphrey won the nomination, but the Democratic Nomination Convention in Chicago and the anti-war demonstrators forced Humphrey to lead a badly divided party in the elections.

George Wallace and White Backlash

• Former governor of Alabama. He fought for segregation and increased state rights.

• He ran as an Independent, appealing to Americans who were upset with violence and civil disobedience associated with the anti-war and civil rights demonstrations.

• He won 5 states in the South, and had strong support in the North.

The Rise of Nixon (1969-1974)

• Turmoil with the Democratic Party benefitted Nixon and the Republican Party.

• Nixon won on the promise to restore law and order. He successfully appealed to the middle class who were fed up with the years of riots and protests.

The Doves Demand Peace

• Opposed the Vietnam war, and staged massive demonstrations demanding the pullout of troops immediately.

• They believed that we couldn’t win the war.

• Led by Senator William Fulbright, who wrote "The Arrogance of Power”

The Hawks and the Silent Majority

• Supported the war, and felt that withdrawing would be surrendering.

• They felt that we didn’t put enough effort into the war.

• Silent Majority: moderate, mainstream American who quietly supported Nixon’s policies in Vietnam. Believed the  U.S. was justified for supporting South Vietnam.

The Invasion of Cambodia

• The Silent Majority favored Vietnamization, which was Nixon's strategy for ending our involvement in the war. They trained and gave weapons to the South Vietnamese, while slowly withdrawing American troops.

• Vietnamization promised to preserve U.S. goals and bring "peace with honor".

• April 1970, Nixon ordered our troops to join with the South Vietnamese and invade "neutral" Cambodia to root out any Vietcong safe havens.

• This led to an increase in student protests

• Nixon defended his action because it was necessary to protect American forces and support Vietnamization.

Kent State, 1970

• Student protests erupt on college campuses across the nation after America found out about the Cambodian invasion.

• 1.5 million students shut down 1200 campuses.

• Kent State University, Ohio-student protest led to the burning of the ROTC building. The National Guard was called in.

• National guard members shot at protestors, killing four and wounding nine.

• This triggered massive anti-war rallies across the U.S.

Ending the Vietnam War

• Henry Kissinger, Nixon's national security advisor, engaged in secret negotiations with the North Vietnamese, he aimed at reaching a negotiated settlement.

• Paris Peace Accords in January 1973, An armistice

• The U.S. agreed to withdraw the last of its troops, and the North Vietnamese agreed to release five hundred P.O.W.

• 1975, The Fall of Saigon (South Vietnam): Showed the failure of U.S. efforts.

Consequences of the Vietnam War

• The war affected the economy as follows: The U.S. could not afford both the Great Society and the war. This led to high inflation rates in the late 60's and 70's.

• The War affected international involvements as follows: 1) It increased public skepticism toward international entanglements (Vietnam Syndrome) 2) 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act, saying that the President must inform Congress within 48 hours of sending troops into hostile areas without a declaration of war.

Background of Detente

• The Cold War had been going on since 1945.

• The Berlin airlift, Berlin Wall, and Cuban Missile Crisis were all confrontations between the U.S. and U.S.S.R.

• No formal recognition of the Chinese Communist government.

• Nixon and Kissinger felt that the U.S. needed a new more flexible foreign policy.

• Nixon and Kissinger called for the relaxation of tensions between the U.S. and the communist world.

Detente and China

• 1971 Nixon announces his intention to visit China, in order "to normalize relations between the 2 countries." Nixon was the 1st president to visit the People's Republic of China

• He visited Beijing in 1972, an example of détente.

Détente and the Soviet Union

• In 1972, Nixon also visited Moscow. He was the 1st president to do so.

• Nixon's visit led to a series of agreements that reduced tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The most important agreements were: 1) SALT talks, which led to the SALT I treaty that limited the number of ICBMs that each superpower could have. 2) A series of agreements that expanded trade between the two superpowers.

Background (Nixon and the New Federalism)

• Johnson’s Great Society programs led to an increase in federal influence and spending.

• Nixon wanted to reduce the size and influence of the federal government.

The New Federalism

• Nixon's plan called for a shift of a portion of federal power to go to the state and local government.

• This happened under a program called “revenue sharing” in which state and local governments could spend their federal dollars however they saw fit, within certain limitations.

Watergate

• In 1972, at the Democratic Nomination Convention, "the Plumbers" broke into the Watergate Hotel.

• Investigation of this incident led to the persecution of the men involved in this incident.

• Further investigation led to a cover up by the Nixon Administration. They were involved in other covert affairs such as wiretapping the Democratic Party headquarters, and others whom Nixon thought to be suspicious. "Dirty Tricks"

• The “White House Tapes”, led to the finding of multiple abuses by Nixon and his men.

• Aug, 9, 1974, Nixon resigned before the Senate got a chance to vote for his impeachment.

• September 5, 1974. Ford, Nixon's successor, pardons Nixon.

The Economy (Carter)

• Inflation was the main issue for Carter and his Administration

• During the 1970s, the U.S experienced high inflation and slow economic growth.

• This rising inflation and high unemployment was called stagnation.

• AlI of the following characterized the economy during the Carter Administration: An increase in 1) unemployment 2) inflation 3) government spending 4) price of gasoline due to the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo and the 1979 Iranian Revolution and 5) Interest rates, cutting the supply of money and credit.

• All of the following were causes of inflammatory pressure during the 1970s: 1) Spending from the Vietnam War. 2) rising energy costs. 3) soaring federal budget deficits. 4) rising health care costs.

Foreign Policy (Carter)

• Carter's foreign policy was focused on Human rights.

• Carter's policy aroused global concern and helped make human rights an international issue.

• Carter was responsible for the Camp David Accords: 1978, the Camp David Accords led to Israeli and Egyptian leaders reaching a peace agreement. Egypt was the first Arab nation to recognize Israel as a state.

• Panama Canal, and SALT II.

The 1980s Election: Reagan vs. Carter

Raegan defeats Carter because of the Iran Hostage situation, the double digit inflation, and the energy crisis.

The Rise of Reagan (1981-1988)

• Reagan capitalized on his status as a Washington outsider (Not previously in politics)

• Regan’s key goals were as follows: 1) Addressing the Iran Hostage Crisis 2) Fixing the weak economy and high inflation. 3) Addressing hostility toward big govt. 4) and Called for more conservatives in the Supreme Court

Reaganomics/Supply-Side Economics

Reduced federal taxes for business and the wealthy. This widened the gap between the rich and the poor. 2) Reduced corporate tax & encouraged private investment. 3) Promoted economic growth by deregulating business.

Demographic Trends (1980-Present)

• 1970’s. people began to move from the frostbelt (Northeast) to the sunbelt (The South), and this still continues today.

• The South and the West saw greatest increases since the 70’s

• In the last 25 years, most immigrants came from Latin America and Asia.

• The Aging population will threaten social security

Clinton Presidency

• He created the North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which created a free-trade zone between the U.S>, Canada, and Mexico

• The World Trade Organization (WTO) provided the framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, replacing the General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) agreement formed in 1947.

• Clinton created welfare reform, balanced the federal budget while giving America surpluses, and had economic views that mimicked conservatives.

The Election of Barack Obama

November 2008, a record number of voters voted for our First African American President, Barack Hussein Obama.