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neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
dendrite
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
action potential
the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.
resting potential
the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
Reuptake
process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
Endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
Agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action
antagonist
inhibits a neurotransmitter
central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
A division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves that are not part of the brain or spinal cord.
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
somatic nervous system
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles
autonomic nervous system
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of muscles and internal organs and glands.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
FMRI
A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.
EEG
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Pons
A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain; regulates sleep/relaxation
Thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Reticular Formation (Reticular Activating System)
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
Cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
limbic system
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Hypothalamus
a neural structure that directs eating, drinking, body temperature, and sexual behavior; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
frontal lobe
associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving
parietal lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
occipital lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information
temporal lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
Broca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
REM sleep
a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
Depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Stimulants
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
Narcotics/Opioids
functions as painkillers and floods system with dopamine
e.g. opium, heroin, morphine leads to dependency
Hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD and marijuana, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
All or Nothing Principle
The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity.
Resting Potential
The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane
Depolarization
Loss of a state of polarity; loss or reduction of negative membrane potential and the start of the action potential
Refractory period
a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
Multiple Sclerosis
A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech
Excitatory neurotransmitter
chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to fire e.g. glutamate, acetylcholine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.
Inhibitory Neurotransmitter
chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing e.g. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine and serotonin
Dopamine
a neurotransmitter that can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects and regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal
Hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues e.g. Adrenaline, Leptin, Ghrelin, Melatonin, and Oxytocin
Addiction
compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
Withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
Tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
Brain Stem
Connection to spinal cord and input for all information to the brain. Filters information flow between peripheral nervous system and the rest of the brain.
Brain's Reward Center
generally controls some voluntary
movement, eye movement, and some types of
learning, cognition, and emotion.
Left Hemisphere
controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math
Right Hemisphere
controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial
Aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
Lesioning
removal or destruction of part of the brain usually resulting in a reduced behavioral ability
Consciousness
a person's subjective experience of the world and the mind composed of our awareness to the outside world and wakefulness towards purposeful action
NREM Sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages 1-3 except for REM sleep
Brain Death
No brain activity or response to stimulus. Absence of cerebral blood flow and organ function - Not Awake or Aware
Coma
Steady but low brain activity, irregular breathing, and no response to stimulus Not Awake or Aware
Vegetative State
Low brain activity but responds to some stimuli, physical function but not cognitive Awake but NOT Aware
Minimally Conscious State
brief periods of purposeful actions and speech comprehension, cognition and awareness Awake and Aware
Hypnagogic Sensations
bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep
REM Rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
activation-synthesis theory
theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story
Consolidation theory
Circuits wired together during the waking period are consolidated, or strengthened, during sleep
Wish Fulfillment theory
Theory that conflicts, events and desires of the past are represented in symbolic form in dreams.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
Insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
a neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams sleep walking and talking
somnambulism
occurs when a person arises and walks around while asleep
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