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Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to this provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories. Used when classifying objects.

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier use of heuristics. (1 of 2 problem solving methods)

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier and more error-prone that algorithms. (1 of 2 problem solving methods)

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. when he problem changes, we can't get out of the rut because of familiarity with the one approach.

Convergent thinking/creativity

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. tested by getting three words and explains how they are connected.

Divergent thinking/creativity

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that separates in different directions. thinking of weird, new and unusual uses for things.

Propositional representation

psychological theory, developed by Dr. Zenon Pylyshyn, that mental relationships between objects are represented by symbols and not by mental images of the scene

Pictorial (Analog) representation

visual representation as by photography or painting

Kossyln's "Island" study

Study with a little island and people have to remember details of the island. Asks them to imagine the how far something was from another and instead of giving a direct answer, they explained different details of the island in respect to each other.

Functional fixedness

a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. sometimes we have a hard time solving problems because our existed perception is fixed and hard to manipulate as needed. (box of tacks, candle, and matches. how to attach candle to wall)

Insight

a sudden realization a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. to pay attention to what one already knows.

Types of Reasoning Heuristics/Biases

availability, framing, and overconfidence

Availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events base don their availability in memory; if instances comes readily to mind, we presume such events are common (Type of Reasoning Heuristics/Bias)

Framing

the way an issue is posed; the same information when presented in different forms can lead to different decisions.(Type of Reasoning Heuristics/Bias)

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements (Type of Reasoning Heuristics/Bias)

Types of properties of language

arbitrarily symbolic, generative, language structure

Arbitrarily symbolic

a linguistic sign, for example, a verbally spoken word, that bears no obvious resemblance to the thing or concept signified. (Type of property of language)

Generative

an approach to linguistics whose goal is to account for the infinite set of possible grammatical sentences in a language using a finite set of generative rules. (Type of property of language)

Language structure

(highest) sentence, phrase, word, morpheme, phoneme (lowest) (Type of property of language)

Morphemes

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word

Morphology

branch of linguistics that studies words and their structure

Phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinct sound unit.

Articulation

the process of producing and using the speech sounds required for intelligible and meaningful speech. Different phonemes are produced by our vocal apparatus depending on the position of our tongues, lips, jaw, vocal cords, etc.

Vowels

a voiced speech noise which is generated whenever the breath flow vibrating the vocal cords has uninhibited passage via the vocal tract

Consonants

a spoken or unspoken speech noise which is created whenever the vocal tract is partially or entirely contracted

Stop consonants

the sound made by completely blocking the flow of air and then releasing it (ba/da/ta)

Voicing

the utilization of vocal cord vibrations to generate speech noises (difference between si/zi)

Syntax

a group of the rules that are used to describe how the phrases and the words should be used in a language so that they can make a grammatically acceptable sentence.

Universal grammar

Noam Chomsky suggested all human languages share this. We have a built in universal language that helps children learn a language.

Broca's area

the region of speech located posteriorly to the inferior frontal convolution of the left cerebral hemisphere in right-handed people (stores sound representation of words)

Broca's aphasia

a condition in which there is loss of the ability to produce language in either speech or writing. Comprehension largely intact (slow halting speech)

Wernicke's area

an area within the posterior temporal gyrus of the left hemisphere of the brain's cerebrum, consisting of nerve tissue correlated to the perception of noises (planning and organization of speech)

Wernicke's aphasia

a loss of the capacity to understand noises or speech , specifically to comprehend or repeat spoken language and to identify items or traits . language production remains fluent but makes little sense.

Conduction aphasia

damage to connections between Broca's area and Wernicke's area: less severe damage to language ability, but trouble monitoring your own and others speech and repeating back sentences

Global aphasia

widespread damage to the left hemisphere across multiple language areas

Linguistic determinism (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

The structure of anyone's native language strongly influences or fully determines the worldview he will acquire as he learns the language.

Linguistic relativity

Thoughts and behavior are influenced by language.
Variety of interesting studies, some for, some against. Language effects language, cognition, memory, but not as strong as linguistic determinism.

Berlin and Kay color study

found that there are eleven specific colors that all languages derive their color terms from. Follows a hierarchy:

Two color terms: black and white
Three terms: black, white, red.
Additional color words in this order: yellow-blue-green, then brown, then purple, pink, orange, grey.

Indicated that there may be universal, physiologically based principles behind color naming.

Heider color study

Tribe in New Guinea called the Dani. Only had two color terms (black and white). She showed them color chips then later asked them to recognize that chip vs. new one.

Focal colors (a shade that people judge as a typical red) vs. Non-focal colors.

Dani behaved the same as English speakers: could remember the right color chips even though they had no words for them AND they recognized the focal colors better than non-focal. Perceived color the same way as english speakers.

Codability

How easily a concept can be described in a given language. If you have a word for concept X it's a lot easier to encode that concept. Having words for a certain thing, it is easier to remember and retrieve from memory.

Linguistic Relativity Studies

Scientists asked Tarahumarato compare a blue-blue, a green-blue, and a green-green. Tarahumarato described it by its physical properties (color spectrum) while english speakers used color-labels

Problems of language acquisition

Learn phonemes, parsing into phonemes & words (no clear divisions between phonemes or words in speech), word meanings, syntax/grammar rules.

Learn language without negative feedback about grammar/pronunciation; suggests linguistic universals.

Language development: Phonemes (can discriminate all phonemes from all languages during 1st year, gradually lose non-relevant discriminations)

Linguistic universals

Linguistic features that are common to all languages, such as words and sentence structure or pronouns or color words.

Motherese (Child-erectus speech)

which is typically fairly simple and phonologically clear, often in a high-pitch spoken by parents or older individuals when communicating with young children. (Adults help kids with high pitch, slow rate, exaggerated intonation, limited vocabulary).

Major stages of language development

Holophrastic (one-word) stage

Telegraphic (two-word) stage

Learning syntax/rules (syntactic overgeneralization)

Holophrastic (one-word) stage

One word utterances. No syntax, need context (gestures, affect) to disambiguate. Undergeneralization & overgeneralization for first ~75 words. Do understand some phrases (Major stage of language development)

Telegraphic (two-word) stage

Two word utterances

Correct use of word order:
subject-action
action-object

Can convey a lot of information succinctly (like a telegraph)(Major stage of language development)

Overgeneralization

We have irregular verbs such as though not thinked. When children pick up on these rules they may tend to try to apply them to irregular verbs such as thought. This process is described by this concept.

Syntactic overgeneralization

Learning the concept of making a term past tense and applying it incorrectly to words where is does not make sense

Learning Rules: Past Tense

U-shaped curve for irregular past (went)
Initially, use appropriate form (went).
Learn rule (add -ed) and overgeneralize (goed)
Relearn correct past tense (went).

Learning Rules: Nonsense Words

Learn general rules that apply to new cases.
4-5 yr-olds know
Plural of "wug" is "wugs"
Past tense of "rick" is "ricked"
Implies language learning is generative, not just imitation.

Critical Period Effects

(Most) people who learn language after age 10-12 never acquire native ability

People raised in social isolation - Genie

2nd language learners
Johnson and Newport study

Johnson and Newport Study

Tested for critical period effect in normal subjects. Chinese or Korean speakers came to US at various ages learned English. Are the early learners always better than the older/later learners? All had 10 years experience speaking English, all were motivated to learn. Tested on ability to distinguish grammatical from ungrammatical English sentences (easy test for a native speaker). The little boy is speak to a policeman. The farmer bought two pig at the market.

Animal Language Research

Fewer ethical constraints than humans. Full time subjects over whom we can exert complete control of environment. Can do comparative analysis of other species abilities/limitations. Differentiate between skills that are uniquely human and those that are not.

Koko

Patterson raising gorilla named Koko since 1972. Taught Koko sign language
Patterson & Linden (1981). Koko uses structure, is creative and spontaneous in her language. Koko now has a vocabulary of over 1000 signs, and understands even more spoken English. Koko invented her own new compound signs (e.g., finger-bracelet for ring)

The Ape Language King: Kanzi

Kanzi is a Bonobo chimp (not common chimp). Pygmy chimps, but not shorter than common chimp. Kanzi's mother was in a language learning study at a lab in Georgia.
Taught to communicate using symbols on a computer (lexigrams)
Not trying to teach Kanzi, but he observed while he clung to his mother.
Kanzi did much better than his mother (critical period?)

Conclusions of Animal Language

Previously, we underestimated abilities of animals
(especially chimpanzees like Kanzi) to learn language. Kanzi's success supports empiricist theories of language
acquisition - idea that languages are learned and that we not heavily depend on innate linguistic knowledge. Even Kanzi requires years of training to acquire abilities similar to what a 2 or 3 year-old human acquires naturally without any special training. And Kanzi never gets as good as a 5 or 6 year old. We still don't know: What differs in Kanzi vs. a human child - is general learning abilities or specific adaptations for language?

General theories of motivation

Instinct, drive, arousal, incentive

Instinct theory

Things in the environment are "Releasers" which lead to instinctual pre-programmed responses. (General theory of motivation)

Drive reduction theory

The notion that physiological needs arouse tension that motivates action (General theory of motivation)

Arousal theory

Strive to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
Seek stimulation if bored, relaxation if excited.
Yerkes-Dodson Law (General theory of motivation)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

a law postulating that the association between drive and action can be signified by an inverted U-curve. Ex - Can't perform well if too relaxed or too anxious.

Intrinsic incentives

Activities that are an end unto themselves (eating, watching cartoons)

Incentive theory

Intrinsic Incentives:
Activities that are an end unto themselves (eating, watching cartoons)

Extrinsic Incentives: Activities with external rewards or punishments (working, doing chores)(General theory of motivation)

Extrinsic incentives

Activities with external rewards or punishments (working, doing chores)

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

(Highest) Self-transcendence, Self-actualization, Esteem, Belongingness and love, Safety, Physiological (lowest)

Self-trancendence

wanting to be connected something bigger than yourself. A higher power

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

Glucose

eating increases this in the bloodstream

Hunger-regulation cycle

eat -\> released glucose -\> diminished hunger -\> don't eat -\> lowered glucose -\> increased hunger -\> (repeat)

Role of hypothalamus in hunger

Hypothalamus brain structure that regulates body temperature, release of hormones, and monitors glucose levels.

Lateral hypothalamus

"hunger center", if stimulate these cells, animal eats and eats. Starve to death if LH is destroyed.

Ventromedial hypothalamus

"satiation center", stimulate this and animal will not eat. Destroy VH and animal eats and eats.

Appetite hormones

Leptin, PPY, Insulin, Ghrelin, Obestatin, Orexin

Leptin

secreted by fat cells; sends signals to brain diminishing reward of food (Appetite hormone)

PPY

secreted by digestive tract; sends not hungry signals to the brain (Appetite hormone)

Insulin

secreted by the pancreas; controls blood glucose (Appetite hormone)

Obestatin

secreted by stomach; sends "full" signals to brain (Appetite hormone)

Orexin

secreted by hypothalamus; triggers hunger (Appetite hormone)

Types of eating disorders

obesity, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa

Obesity

over eating leading to being over weight (types of eating disorder)

Anorexia nervosa

Eat way too little to maintain a healthy weight (types of eating disorder)

Bulimia nervosa

Binge and purge. Overeat followed by vomiting, laxatives etc. (types of eating disorder)

Self-esteem

having a low level of this will lead men and women to be more susceptible to succumbing to eating disorders

Media images in eating disorders

promotes the ideal body image. affects women more than men, affects western cultures, increased over time

Fallon and Rozen study

Studied 500 U of Pennsylvania students.
Women's ideal weight was less than their actual weight. Men's ideal and actual weight matched up more closely. Also, women thought that men preferred women to be thinner than the men actually did.

Social motives

Power, Belongingness, Affiliation, Intimacy, Achievement

Reward-based motivation

sex

Intrinsic motivation

Activities that are an end unto themselves (eating, watching cartoons) (type of motivation)

Extrinsic motivation

Activities with external rewards or punishments (working, doing chores) (type of motivation)

Possible determinants of sexual orientation

environment - no one has found any

genetics - identical oppose to fraternal twins are more likely to share a sexual orientation

prenatal environment - exposure to hormones in the womb affects brain centers involved in sexual behaviors

Grit

courage and resolve; strength of character

Achievement goal theory

any of numerous theorems of willingness that discern two kinds of success pursuits, goal-oriented, ego-oriented, that unite such dissimilarities in each person's assumed capacity for the job and their accomplishment conduct

Achievement motivation

strong desire to accomplish something

Growth mindset

Abilities and intelligence are malleable traits and can be improved. "I CAN DO THIS. I can change my ways to get a better grade." (type of mindset)

Fixed mindset

Abilities and intelligence are innate and cannot change. "Im doomed; I'm going to fail." (type of mindset)

Self-determination theory

a theory that will create the optimal scenario for motivation

Autonomy

Self-regulated learning strategies