Cognitive Exam 2 Voacb

Acquisition

The process of gaining new information and incorporating it into one's existing knowledge or memory. It involves the initial learning of information.

• once you have information, you need to find a way to hold onto it —> storage

• ex: creating the computer file to then store

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time. In cognitive psychology, storage refers to the process of maintaining information in memory for later use.

Retrieval

The process of recalling or bringing back stored information from memory. It involves accessing and bringing to consciousness previously learned material.

• ex: this would be similar to if you were opening a computer file

Modal Model

A theoretical framework in cognitive psychology that describes memory as consisting of three main components: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

• working memory is best understood as an activity

Sensory Memory

The initial stage in the memory process that briefly holds sensory information from the external environment in its raw form.

• Iconic memory for visual inputs: temporarily stores visual information. It allows us to retain an image for a very brief period (about 250–500 milliseconds) after seeing it, helping us perceive the world as continuous rather than a series of disconnected snapshots

• Echoic memory for auditory inputs: if you see something and then close your eyes, echoic memory allows you to recall sounds for a short duration, typically a few seconds, even after the auditory stimulus has ended.

Short Term Memory

The component of the modal model that holds a limited amount of information for a short period, typically around 20-30 seconds

• the place where you hold info while your working on it

• ideas/thoughts in this memory are currently activated, currently being thought about

• ex: looking up a phone number and remembering it just long enough to be able to dial it

Working Memory

A contemporary view of short-term memory that emphasizes its active processing aspects.

• a dynamic form of short term storage — less like a storage place, more like a status

• Currently activated ideas or thoughts that are being worked on by a specific set of operations

Long Term Memory (LTM)

The stage of memory with a relatively limitless capacity that stores information for an extended period, potentially for a lifetime. It is thought to have an unlimited duration

• capacity is unlimited but it is hard to get information into the long term memory

• Each retrieval makes the next retrieval easier

Free Recall

a memory retrieval task where individuals are asked to remember information without explicit cues or prompts

• participants are read a list of 30 words —> immediately after the last word is read they are asked to repeat it back as many words as they can

• people are likely to remember the first few words and the last few words due to primacy and recency effect

Primacy Effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list more effectively than those in the middle

• better memory for the first few items relative to middle items

• as the list progresses attention is divided across more items and attention is less devoted to each individual item

• earlier words in the list were rehearsed more so their is a greater change to transfer from working mem to LTM

Recency Effect

the tendency to remember items at the end of a list more effectively than those in the middle

• last few items are still held in working memory

• earlier items are displaced by subsequent items

• better memory for the last few items bc working memory contains whatever the person is currently thinking about —> at the end of the list/task they are thinking about the last few words

Serial Position

refers to placement or position of a word within a to be remembered list

• usually results from free recall procedure result in a U shape (participants remember first words and last words due to primacy and recency effect)

Digit Span Task

a cognitive task used to measure a persons working memory capacity. It involves the individual repeating a sequence of digits in the same order as presented

• ex: participants hear a series of digits (8,9,4) and must immediately repeat them back —> list increases until memory fails

  • the number of digits the person can echo back without errors is referred to as the persons digit span

  • average working mem capacity is ~ 7+-2 items

Chunks

refer to meaningful units of information that can be grouped together. It is a way that individuals organize information to make it more manageable for memory

• our ability to condense information

• chunks that are well formed are much easier to remember

• requires effort but reduced working memory load

• ex: H O P T R A S L U (nine items — HOP TRA. SLU (three chunks)

• ex: a phone number (703)-819

Operation Span

a cognitive task in which individuals must preform a single operation (solving a math problem) between remembering a sequence of items

• meausres capacity of WM when WM is “Working”

• Different from digit span because DS addresses only WM capacity, not its active nature

• Measuring our ability to use information in working memory

  • Math problem and say if it was true or false and then say the word – making you do two things 

Central Executive

The central executive is the component responsible for the coordination of cognitive processes and the allocation of attention to different tasks

• one of the components of the working memory system

• processes that govern the selection and sequence of thoughts.

• Its main job is to manage attention, coordinate information, and direct cognitive resources to different tasks

• you have to plan a response or make a decision

• decides that this information is only needed until task is complete and then gets rid of it

Articulatory Rehearsal Loop

component of the working memory model, it is responsible for the verbal rehearsal of information to keep it in working memory

• Subvocailization (silent speech) to launch the rehearsal loop —> this production of the inner voice produced a representation of the numbers in the phonological buffer

  • ex: talking to yourself in your head

• way to keep information in working memory that you only need for a certain amount of time

Phonological Buffer

In the working memory model, the phonological buffer is a temporary storage system that holds acoustic or speech-based information before it is processed further

• passively stores the sound representation (internal echo)

• ex: When you try to remember a phone number, you might repeat it to yourself, using the articulatory control process to keep the information active in the phonological store

• Brief period of time were we can quarry what we just heard in our working memory but it goes away

  Ex: saying what after someone says something but then it coming to you

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information mentally to maintain it in working memory, using minimal processing rather than an attempt at understanding

• one of the types of rehearsal to get information into long term storage — little thought about what the item means

• ex: repeating a definition until you have it memorized

Elaborative Processing

A type of rehearsal that involves adding a greater level of detail to a to-be-remembered stimulus. This type of rehearsal is associated with better long-term retention

• linking it with something to add meaning to help get information into long term memory

• involves thinking about what the be remembered items mean and how they’re related to one another and also to other things you already know

• more successful than maintenance rehearsal

• Way to make information more vivid → gives you more cues to remember the information later 

• ex: the guys from the video who could remember all the animals people listed becase he pictured them all together 

Intentional Learning

The process of actively and purposefully trying to acquire new information or skills. It involves conscious efforts to remember and understand

• deliberate with the expectation that memory will be later tested

Incidental Learning

Learning that occurs without a conscious intention to learn. It happens as a byproduct of other activities or experiences

• learning in the absence of any intention to learn

Shallow Processing

Processing information at a superficial level, such as repeating it, without engaging in deep analysis

• superficial engagement with the material

• ex: is the word DOG in capital or lower case letters

• ex: find the “e"

Deep Processing

Processing information at a meaningful level, often by relating it to existing knowledge or personal experiences

• requires thinking about the meaning of the material

• ex: does the word DOG fit in the sentence “He walked his__”?

• shallow processing has worse learning compared to deep which has equal learning compared to effortful

Retrieval Paths

The routes or connections through which stored information can be accessed during the process of retrieval

• connections promote retrivela

Mnemonic Strategies

Techniques used to enhance memory that often involve creating associations, visual imagery, or organizational schemes to facilitate remembering

• improve memory through organization

• ex: one is a bun, two is a shoe

Context Dependent Learning

the phenomenon where information is better recalled when the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time of retrieval

• depends on the state the learner is in during acquisition

• ex: video - 40% more words recalled by those tested in the SAME context as the one they learned in —> context provides us with retrival cues

• ex: diver underwater is going to feel cold leading him to think cold related thoughts - if the diver is back underwater for the test —> the cold triggers certain thoughts, and because of connections formed during learning, those thoughts trigger the target memories

Context Reinstatement

A technique used to improve memory retrieval by recreating the environmental and mental context that was present during encoding

• recreating the context (thoughts/feelings) that was present during learning

  • this applies to you even if you are not in the same location

  • ex: if you are studying with a blanket and candle - remember the smell of the candle and try to be warm during the test

  • studying in different areas —> learned the information better

Encoding Specificity

the principle that memory is more effective when information available at encoding is available at retrieval

• refers to remembering both the materials to be learned and the context of those materials

• ex: the man tuned the piano vs. the man lifted the piano — later on when participants were asked to recall target words, if they had seen “lifted” they were likely to recall target word if given a hint “something heavy”

• examples when studying increases the amount of cues to help with retrieval

Associations or Associative Links

connections formed between pieces of information in memory, facilitating the retrieval of one piece of information when another is activated

• ideas represented as nodes connected to each other via association links

• ex: associating a person with a scent and thinking of them when you smell it

Activation Level

the degree to which information in memory is currently activated or accessible

• a nodes activation level increases with increasing input from neighboring nodes

• nodes receive activation from their neighbors, and as more and more activation arrives at a particular node, the activation level for the node increases —> eventually the activation level will reach the nodes response threshold —> NODE FIRES

Response Threshold

the level of activation that must be reached for a particular piece of information to be retrieved or become conscious

Subthrshold Activation

activation of information in memory that is below the threshold for conscious awareness

• node does not get enough activation to fire

Summation

the process by which the combined activation of multiple sources increases the likelihood of retrieving a particular piece of information

• accumulation of activation from multiple sources, which can lead to a node or concept reaching its activation threshold and becoming consciously accessible

Spreading Activation

the process by which the activation of one node in a semantic network leads to activation of related nodes

• write the following words - book, jump, tiger, PREY — this version of prey has been semanically primed from tiger

Lexical Decision Task

a psychological task where participants decide whether a string of letters constitutes a real word

• did a zaps lab

• we can use participants speed of response as an index of how quickly they can locate the word in their memories

Semantic Priming

a phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus based on the meaning or relatedness between them

• ex: people were much faster at recognizing if two strings of letters were words or non-words if the words were related because the first word primes for the second making the process faster

Recall

the retrieval of information from memory without explicit cues

• depends heavily on memory connections

• ex: what was the name of the restaurant we went to?

Source Memory

the ability to remember the context or source of information (where it was learned)

• helps us distinguish between different experiences and maintain a coherent understanding of the world

• recognition depends on this/ needed for recognition

Familiarity

a feeling of recognition or awareness without necessarily remembering the specific details or source of information

• in the absence of source memory, recognition depends on feelings of familiarity

• Familiarity and source memory are independent

Explicit Memory

conscious and intentional memory retrieval, involving the deliberate recall of information

• usually revealed by direct memory testing

• ex: consciously recalling the date of an important event

Direct Memory Testing

assessment of memory that required conscious and intentional recall or recognition

• ex: recall, recognition

• conscious awareness

• testing the urges participants to remember the past

• reveals explicit memory

Implicit Memory

unconscious or unintentional memory retrieval, demonstrated through performance or behavior rather than conscious recall

• usually revealed by indirect memory tests and are often manifested as priming

• ex: tying your shoe, brushing your teeth

Indirect Memory Testing

assessment of memory that does not explicitly ask for recall but instead measures the influence of prior learning on behavior

• look at how the second encounter yields different responses than the first encounter

• priming indicates implicit memory of first encounter

• ex: Words that were previously shown to participants are presented again in a fragmented form (i.e. missing letters) with the task of retrieving the missing letters from memory to complete it

Illusion of Truth

the tendency for people to believe information is true after repeated exposure, even if the information is false

• effect on implicit memory in which claims that are familiar (from being heard before) end up seeming more plausible

• occurs despite warnings in advance

• ex: social media, news outlets

Source Confusion

the inability to distinguish between the source of a memory and whether it was personally experienced or learned from another source

• ex: eyewitness may select someone from a photo lineup based on familiarity rather than recollection

Processing Fluency

the ease with which information is processed, which can influence judgements of familiarity and truth

• implicit memory involves processing fluency - an improvement in the speed or ease of processing

• we tend to prefer things that are easy and simple

• ex: A website with a clear layout and easy navigation

Retrograde Amnesia

memory loss for events that occurred before onset of amnesia

• ex: wont remember this wife or kids

• more common

Anterograde Amnesia

memory loss for events that occur after onset of amnesia, often affecting the ability to form new memories

• cant form new memories

• more common with permanent damage

Recognition

The identification of previously encountered information from a set of alternatives

• information is presented and the individual must decide if it is sought after information

Attribution

the process by which individuals explain the causes of events and behaviors, either their own or those of others, using internal or external factors

Episodic Memory

memory for specific events

• ex: what did you eat for breakfast this am

Semantic memory

general knowledge, not tied to any time or place

• ex: what is 2+2

Intrusion Error

errors in memory where information that was not presented is falsely recalled or recognized

• a result of overlapping memories connections

• elements might be connected because they are associated or because they are actually part of the memory

• ex: misremembering that family reunion was during summer break when it was during spring breakn

Schema

cognitive frameworks or mental structures that organize and interpret information

• help us when remembering an event

• they can also hurt us when we do something very often — ex: remembering the last time you were at your favorite restaurant, it is hard to recall which time it was

• ex: you might remember seeing magazines in a dentist office even if there were none because in other experiences there were some

Misinformation Effect

a phenomenon where exposure to misleading or incorrect information can lead to errors in memory recall or recognition

• ex: older sibling convincing their younger sibling of a time they were lost by providing alot of very realistic details

• easier to plant plausible memories than implausible

Memory Confidence

the subjective feeling or belief about the accuracy of one’s memory; it does not always align with the actual accuracy of the memory

• no widespread reliable indictors that confidence does influence memory accuracy

• people tend to trust memories more that are expressed with confidence - a persons degree of certainty is an uneven indicator of whether a memory is trustworthy

• Confidence is influenced by factors beyond the memory itself

  • ex: repetition can increase confidence without changing recall accuracy

Decay Theory of Forgetting

a theory suggesting that memories fade or erode over time due to the mere passage of time and the lack of rehearsal or retrieval

• maybe the connections among memories need to be constantly refreshed and if they are not the connection weakens

Interference Theory of Forgetting

A theory proposing that forgetting occurs when information competes or interferes with the retrieval of other information

• ex: where you parked yesterday if replaced with where you parked today

• The more learned information is the harder it is to replace - parking spot if not well learned

  • reason why it is hard for people to combat misinformation

TIp of the TOngue Phenomenon

a state where an individual is unable to recall a specific word or piece of information despite being aware that it is stored in memory

• ex: someone can remember the first letter of a name but not the full thing

• memory is intact but cant be accessed

Retrieval Failure Theory of Forgetting

a theory suggesting that forgetting is not due to the loss of information but rather to the failure to retrieve the information from memory

• failure of retrieval: the memory is till intact but cant be accessed

Autobiographical Memory

a type of long term memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences, events, and details from ones own life

• memory of episodes and events in ones own life

• ex: the kid who can recall what day it was 5 years ago on Halloween and what he ate for breakfast

• these memories are biased to emphasize consistency and positive traits

• based on own personal experiences

Consolidation

the process by which newly acquired information is stabilized and strengthened in the memory system

• Physiological arousal and stress at the time of event increase consolidation

Self-Schema

A cognitive framework or mental model that represents one's beliefs, attitudes, and values about oneself.

• we have a better memory for events about us and emotional events

Flashbulb Memories

highly vivid and emotionally intense memories that are associated with significant and surprising events

• very public

• memories of extraordinary clarity, typically for highly emotional events, retained despite the passage of many years

• can include substantial errors

• discussion about these events with other people can act as rehearsal and lead to people altering their accounts

Retention Interval

The time elapsed between the acquisition or encoding of information and the attempt to retrieve it

• as this interval grows —> more likely to forget more and more

• this is why after class we should add examples then to the study guide so we can ensure we remember it

Family Resemblance

a concept in prototype theory suggesting that members of a category share certain features with each other, creating a network of overlapping similarities rather than having a set of defining feature

• ex: cats and dogs have features that categorize them - this helps us determine if what we are looking at is a cat or a dog

• “characteristic features across family members

Prototype Theory

a psychological theory proposing that people form mental representations of categories based on a prototype, which is a typical or idealized member of the category that embodies its essential features

• specify the prototype - the category example that possesses all the characteristics features - and compare against this ideal to determine category membership

• ex: the “ideal” tree — all judgments about trees are made with reference to this ideal

• Protoype for a category will be an average of the various category members you have encountered

Graded Membership

the idea that category membership is not an all or nothing concept but exsists on a continuum

• ex: some dogs are “doggier” than other dogs

• Category membership is not a yes or no decision

Production Task

a task in which individuals are asked to generate responses spontaneously, generating words, phrases, or ideas related to a specific concept

• ex: name as many fruits as you possibly can —participants name the most typical category members first (apple)

Sentence Verification Task

a cognitive task in which participants judge the accuracy of a sentence by responding with “true” or “false”

• ex: are robins birds and are penguins birds

  • judgments about items that are more distant from the prototype take more time to make

Rating Task

a task where individuals provide subjective ratings or evaluations of stimuli based on specific criteria

• ex: i am going to present you a list of birds and I want you to rate them on how “birdy” they are - people rate items as being more birdy when they are closer to the prototype

• people preform the task by comparing the test item to the prototype

• Items that are closer to the protoype are rated as more typical of the category

Basic Level Categorization

the level of categorization that is relatively general and considered the most natural or intuitive level of categorization (often used by children)

• represented by a single word (car, chair)

• often the default for naming objects

• easy to explain commonalities (wheels, seats, windows)

Exemplar based reasoning

a cognitive approach suggesting that indivudals categorize objects by comparing them to specific examples (exemplars) stored in memory, rather than relying on a prototype

• exemplars are specific remembered instances of a category — provide information about category variabiltiy

• early learning involves exemplars

• easier to adjust categories

• ex: birds

  • prototype: robin

  • exemplar: pigeon, ostrich, hawk

Naturally Ocurring vs. Manufactured Objects

a distinction between objects or entities that naturally exist in the world (animals, plants) and those that are artificially created or manufactured by humans (tools, machines)

• children often view objects that are natural as consistent and objects that are manufactured we have control over them

• ex: a skunk cant be turned into a raccoon but a toaster can be turned into a coffee pot

Complexity of Similarity

the idea that similarity between objects or concepts is not straight forward, uniform concept, but can involve various dimensions of comparison, such as appearance, function, or overall characteristics

• completely unrelated objects can share thousands of properties

• decisions about which features are important to resemblance still depend on ones belief about the concept

Typicality

the degree to which an item or example is representative of its category. More typical members are considered better examples of a category

• more likely to infer from a typical to an entire category than from atypical categories

  • ex: people infer that a fact about a robin is true of ducks but not the reverse — would not infer that all ducks can swim based off the fact that ducks can because a duck is atypical and not the prototype for a bird

Anomia

a condition characterized by difficulty in finding or recalling words, often resulting from damage to the brains language centers

• helps prove that different concepts are represented in different brain areas

• loose the ability to name certain objects, both living and non living

Propositional Network

a representation of knowledge in the form of interconnected propositions or statements

• representation of knowledge in the form of interconnected propositions or statements

• based on relations (something is part of something else) HOW THINGS RELATE

• propositions: the smallest unit of knowledge that can be either true or false

  • Children love candy” is a proposition, but “Children” is not; “Susan likes blue cars” is a proposition, but “blue cars” is not

• links between nodes form more complex concepts

Parallel Distributed processing

a model of cogitive processing that involves the simultaneous activation of multiple interconnected processing units, each contributing to the over computation

• distributed representations: each idea is represented by a pattern of activation

Distinction between prototype and exemplars

prototype: typical average of things in a category

exemplar: specific instances that helps define boundaries of category

• exemplars create the foundation of what a prototype is