development pt 2

other half of the development unit, where many terms focus on people's traits, behaviors, cognition, abilities, and how they progressed through life

development psychology

development psychology

-the scientific study of how and why people change over the course of their life (cognitive, emotional, socal, and physical damage) (children with older siblings exhibiting advanced language skills/social understanding)

nature & nurture

-how our genetic inheritance (nature) and our life expereinces (nurture) interact to shape our development (studying twins seperated at birth where both have same interests, but can behave differently)

continuity & stages

-refers to devlopmental changes that are slow and steady, where each step builds directly on the previous ones

-stage theories propose that devlopment happens in specific, sudden shifts that clearly differentiate one phase from another (how children progress from babbling, to single words, sentences, then complex speech)

stability & change

-area of study that helps us understand how and why people remain the same in some ways but also evolve and adapt in others as they go through different life stages (teenager still prefering smaller, quiet gatherings but can interact more comfortably in large groups with coping skills they have devloped)

longitudinal research

-studying the same individuals over time, allowing for direct observation of how behaviors, traits, and abilities change and devlop throughout life

-helps identity long-term trends and the effects of early expereinces on later stages (studying a 5 year old all the way until they are 15)

cross-sectional research

-latitudinal

-studying different groups of people of various ages at the same point in time

-allows researchers to compare differences and similarities across age groups to infer developmental changes (gathering information from various age brackets—age 10, 20, 40, and 60 years)

psychosocial development

-erik erickson

-theory that individuals progress through a series of stages, each characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to a major aspect of personality (child developing friendships/sharing in kindergarten, then goes to group projects, then is assessed for their self-identity/role experimentation)

prenatal development

-the process of growth and development from conception and continuing until birth (fetus growing within the womb through the mother’s diet, etc.)

tertogens

-harmful substances, such as drugs, alcohol, or infections, that can cause development abnormalities or birth defects when a fetus is exposed to them during prenatal development (alcohol can be a harmful substance that harms a fetus)

reflexes

-automatic, instinctual responses that newborns are born with, aiding in their survival (when touching the cheek of a baby, they will instinctively turn her head to recive food)

rooting reflex

-automatic response in newborns where they turn their head toward a touch on the cheeck, helping them locate and latch onto the mother’s breast for feeding (baby opens mouth due to touch of the cheeck to find food)

maturation

-the biological growth process that leads to orderly changes in behavior, guided by genetics and largely unaffected by experience (a young child going from crawling to standing up with support, then walking individually)

developmental milestones

-key skills or behaviors that most children acheive by specific ages (walking, talking, problem-solving, marking significant progress in physical, cognitive, and social development)

sensitive period

-a critical time in early development when the brain is especially receptive to learning specific skills (language, motor skills, become attuned to music because of her musical family)

fine motor coordination

-the ability to control small muscle movements (tasks like writing, buttoning, and using utensils with precision)

gross motor coordination

-the ability to control large muscle movements (tasks like walking, jumping, and throwing with balance and strength)

visual cliff

-gibson/walk 1960: an experiment set up used to study depth perception in infants, featuring a clear glass surface that creates the illusion of a drop-off test (are the infants able to perceive and avoid the “cliff”)

puberty

-the period of physical and hormonal changes during adolesence that lead to sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce (growth spurts, menstrual cycles)

adolescent growth spurt

-a rapid increase in height and weight that typically occurs during puberty, driven by hormonal changes and marking the transition from childhood to adulthood (shorter boy becoming the tallest over the course of summer)

menopause

-the natural biological process marking the end of a woman’s menstrual cycles, typically occuring around age 50 and characterized by hormonal changes and the cessaton of fertility (surges of heat, loss of period, etc.)

sex

-biological differences between males and females (XX for female XY for male)

primary sex characteristics

-the reproductive organs and structures directly involved in reproduction (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia)

secondary sex characteristics

-physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction (breast development, facial hair, and voice deepening)

sexual orientation

-a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affliction that may result from this attraction (biological male attracted to biological male is considered gay)

gender

-the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex (women express emotion in speech, men do not)

gender roles

-societal expectations and norms for behavior, attitudes, and activity typically associated with being male or female (daughter helps with cooking, son mows the lawn)

gender typing

-the process by which children learn and adopt behaviors, interests, and roles considered appropriate for their gender according to cultural norms (boys play with construction toys in play, girls playing house)

ecological systems theory

-a child’s development is influenced by multiple layers of environmental systems

-immediate family (microsystem), larger community structures likes schools (ecosystem), overarching cultural or societal norms (macrosystem)

authoritarian parenting style

-a strict parenting approach where parents enforce high expectations and rigid rules

-prioritize obedience and discipline, often relying on punishment with limited warmth to the child’s needs (parent setting curfew at 9pm with no waver, and any disobedience is cause for immediate punishment)

permissive parenting style

-relaxed approach to parenting where parents show warmth but have a few rules and expectations (parent allowing child to decide whenever their bedtime is, and if they disobey, there are usually no punishments; friends but not parents)

authoritative parenting style

-a balanced approach to parenting, combining high expectations with warmth and support; clear rules but open to their child's needs/opinions (having a set curfew and screen time, but explaining why and the benefits to those rules)

temperament

-the innate traits that influence how children respond to their environment, including their activity level, emotional reactivity, and adaptability (child not liking unpredictable changes, so parents introduce new situations where the child is aware and can calm down)

imprinting

-a rapid and instinctive form of early learning where certain animals, particularly birds, form strong attachments to the first moving object they see shortly after birth/hatching (fostered ducks following a person around because it was the first thing they saw move)

contact comfort

-the sense of security and emotional relief derived from physical touch, particularly between infants and caregivers (monkeys seek comfort from their mother by getting as much skin-to-skin contact as possible)

separation anxiety

-a distress response experienced by infants or young children when separated from their primary caregiver: typically emerges around 8-14 months of age and demonstrates the child’s growing attachment (young child attending preschool for the first time and becomes very upset when their parent is no longer in sight)

attachment styles

-patterns of behavior that describe how children form emotional bonds with caregivers, influencing relationships later in life (caregiver dropping off child at daycare; child is comfortable, occasionally returning to the caregiver for reassurance; becomes upset when left, but is soon fine afterwards)

secure attachment

-pattern where children feel confident and trust that their caregiver will meet their needs while still exploring the environment around them, occasionally seeking comfort and reassurance when stressed (child getting hurt on a playset, runs to caregiver, then goes back to playing after comfort was given)

avoidant attachment

-pattern where children exhibit independence and avoid seeking comfort from their caregiver, often resulting from caregivers who are emotionally unavailable or unresponsive (caregiver picking up toddler from daycare, but child shows no excitement or distress, and does not seek comfort/interaction with the caregiver)

anxious attachment

-pattern where children are overly clingy and anxious about separation from their caregiver, stemming from inconsistent caregiving (child clinging to caregiver at family gathering the entire time, and when caregiver leaves for a moment to get food, child becomes inconsolable until caregiver returns)

disorganized attachment

-pattern characterized by inconsistent or confused behaviors towards a caregiver, often resulting from trauma or abuse (child moving towards parent while looking aware, displaying contradictory reactions)

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

-potentially traumatic events or conditions, such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction, that occur before age 18 and can have long-term impacts on health and well-being (frequent conflict between parents result in the child becoming anxious and struggles with relationships)

social clock

-cultural timeline that sets expected ages for key life events (starting a career, getting married, having children—shapes social expectations for individuals)

emerging adulthood

-transitional life stage from late teens to mid-20s, marked by exploration and self-discovery (navigating career paths, relationships, and personal identity)

adolescent egocentrism

-stage in teenage development marked by an increased self-focus, leading to beliefs that one’s experiences are unique and that others are always observing them (high school student is obsessed with their appearance before going out, because they think everyone will be scrutinizing their outift/hairstyle)

imaginary audience

-phenomenon in adolescence where individuals believe others are constantly watching and judging their behavior, making them highly self-conscious (girl spending a lot of time perfecting her outfit and hairstyle before school, thinking that everyone will judge her)

personal fable

-adolescent belief that one’s experiences are unique and special, often leading to feelings of invulnerability and an underestimation of potential risks (immune to risks of reckless driving because they feel nothing bad will happen to them due to the feeling of being invincible)

possible selves

-the various versions of who individuals might become in the future, including idea selves they hope to achieve and feared selves they wish to avoid (teenager seeing themselves thriving in college and having success, but fearing where they struggle academically and cannot hold a job after high school)

social identity

-an individuals sense of who they are based on their membership in social groups, like nationality, religion, or profession (joining the debate club that promotes a teenager’s social identity as an advocate)

identity diffusion

-state where individuals have not yet explored or committed to life choices regarding beliefs, goals, or values, often leading to uncertainty about their sense of self (high schooler feeling uncertain about future plans and is not sure what they believe in or want to pursue, drifting between hobbies, social groups, and potential career interests without exploring any of them deeply)

identify foreclosure

-stage where people commit to goals, beliefs, or values without exploring alternatives, often adopting the expectations of parents or society (pursuing a medical field because of family expectations, despite not having interest in the career)

identity moratorium

-stage where people actively explore different life paths, beliefs, and values but have not yet made a final commitment, often leading to a period of uncertainty and experimentation (student who initially committed to pre-med realizes it’s not fulfilling and takes a gap year to travel/work different interests)

identity achievement

-stage where people have explored various life paths and made firm decisions about their beliefs, values, and goals, resulting in a clear and stable sense of self (returning to college, the student decides to switch their major to environmental science instead of pre-med)

jean piaget

-studied children’s developing cognition—all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating (four key stages of cognition, concept of schemas, assimilation/accommodation, different thinking from adults’, active learning through discovery)

schemas

-cognitive frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information by categorizing experiences based on prior knowledge and expectations (adding a horse to the animal schema because they recognize it due to its four legs and fur)

assimilation

-the process of incorporating new information into existing schemas, fitting new experiences into familiar categories to understand them better (child seeing poodle for the first time and adding it to the schema of a dog, because it also has fur, four legs, and barks)

accommodation

-the process of altering existing schemas/creating new ones to adapt to new information that doesn’t fit existing categories (seeing a cat at a friend’s house and calling it a dog, but being corrected because cats “meow” and are a different type of animal)

sensorimotor stage

-the first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development (birth to age 2) when infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor actions (baby shaking a rattle to hear the noise, or using a specific blanket because of its texture/the way it feels against their skin)

object permanence

-the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched: developing stage during Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (playing “peek-a-boo” with a child who is initially surprised that the adult has magically reappeared, the understands that the parent does not disappear when hidden)

preoperational stage

-stage of cognitive development (age 2-7), where children develop language, symbolic thinking, and imagination but struggle with logical reasoning and understanding others’ perspectives (imagining an action figure driving a truck around a race track, but not comprehending that even though they enjoy this, others may not feel the same)

pretend play

-involves children acting out scenarios, roles, or situations using their imagination, developing creativity, social skills, and symbolic thinking (pretending a child’s stuffed animals are “students” and she is teaching them, praising them/gently scolding them as a teacher would; the preoperational stage)

parallel play

-stage in early childhood where children play alongside each other without directly interacting, each focused on their own activity but observing and imitating others (two children sit near each other, each playing separately with their own set of building blocks, but glance at the other’s creation once in a while)

animism

-belief in early childhood, common during Piaget’s preoperational stage, where children attribute lifelike qualities, like feelings and intentions, to inanimate objects (t year old child notices that their favorite stuffed animal fell off the bed and begins comforting it, attributing human-like feelings to the stuffed animal)

egocentrism

-characteristic of the preoperational stage where children struggle to see things from another person’s point of view, believing others share their perspective (parent doesn’t immediately react or praise child for their artwork, unable to understand the parent doesn’t share the same viewpoint as them)

theory of mind

-the ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one’s own, typically developing around age 4-5 (child thinking their friend doesn’t like a snack because they don’t, then seeing that the friend does enjoy it, realizing that people have different preferences)

concrete operational stage

-Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development (ages 7-11), where children develop logical thinking about concrete objects and understand concepts like conservation and reversibility (students say that rule-breakers should still be punished because rules are rules, not understanding that some situations can have special context)

conservation

-the understanding that certain properties of objects, such as volume or mass, remain consistent despite changes in form or appearance, typically developing in Piaget’s concrete operational stage (taller, more narrow glass being filled with water to make it appear like it has more volume of water, and the child cannot grasp that the water level remained the same and only looks difference because of the change in glasses)

reversibility

-the ability to mentally reverse an action or operation, understanding that objects can be returned to their original state, typically developing in Piaget’s concrete operational stage (child not able to recreate the ball of clay that the flat pancake shape came from)

formal operational stage

-Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development (beginning at age 12), where individuals develop the ability to think abstractedly, solve hypotactically problems, and use deductive reasoning (prosing hypothetical situations and coming up with solutions for reducing greenhouse gases while balancing economic growth)

Lev Vygotsky

-developmental psychologist known for his theory that social interaction plays a critical role in cognitive development, emphasizing the importance of culture, language, and the “zone of proximal development” in learning (sociocultural learning, etc.)

scaffolding

-teaching method where a knowledgeable person provides tailored support to help a learner achieve new skills, gradually reducing assistance as the learner becomes more proficient (teacher helping child understand subtraction through visual aids and steps on how to master the concept but stops when the child proves able to do the concept themselves)

zone of proximal development

-the range between what learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance, emphasizes the importance of social interaction in learning (coach helping player master a 3-point shot even though the player can make layups easily; improves player’s accuracy and form through the coaches guidance)

crystallized intelligence

-refers to the knowledge and skills accumulated over time thought education and experience improved with age and useful for problem solving based on facts and prior learning (student who enjoys reading and has accumulated vast knowledge about a multitude of things can easily answer questions on a trivia game)

fluid intelligence

-the capacity to reason, solve novel problems, and think abstractly without relying on prior knowledge, generally peaking in early adulthood and gradually declining with age (working together using logic, pattern recognition, and creativity to solve a puzzle in an escape room even with no prior knowledge)

dementia

-decline in cognitive functioning that interferes with daily life, characterized by memory loss, impaired judgment, and difficulties in communication and reasoning, often seen in older adults (elderly beginning to struggle with everyday tasks, like remembering where they left their keys or how to navigate familiar routes)

language

-system of communication using symbols, sounds, and grammar to convey thoughts, feelings, and meaning; 7,000 known languages spoken around the world today (child seeing cookie and saying the word “cookie”, even though not using full sentences, can comprehend the meaning of the word)

critical period

-specific time frame in early childhood when the brain is most receptive to learning language, making it easier to acquire fluency (moving to new country where different language is spoken; child picks up on new language easily where the older members struggle)

phonemes

-the smallest distinct units of sounds in a language that can change the meaning of a word (f sound as in fun, oh sound as in go, n sound as in no, ee sound as in see, m sound as in mom, z sound as in zoo)

morphemes

-the smallest units of meaning in a language, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words

-the word itself contains two morphemes (morph-meaning “form” or “structure” and -emes which indicates plural)

semantics

-study of meaning in language, focusing on how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning (how the meaning of the word “bark” changes depending on the context, either talking about a dog or a tree)

grammar

-set of rules that govern how words are combined to form sentences, enabling clear and meaningful communication in a language (placing words in order to create a full, grammatical sentence, like “the cat chased the mouse”)

syntax

-the set of rules that determines the arrangement of words and phrases to form sentences in a language, affecting sentence structure and meaning(arranging words from the sentence “the ball was kicked by the boy” into “the boy kicked the ball” to make it easier to comprehend)

cooing

-early stage of learning language development where infants produce repetitive, soft vowel sounds like “oo” and “ah”, usually starting around two months of age (helps develop language later due to the vocal sounds)

babbling stage

-phase in language development, usually starting around 4-6 months, where infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like “ba-ba” and “da-da” (imitates speech they hear daily to try and communicate)

one-word stage

-phase in language development, typically around age one, where children use single-words to represent whole sentences or ideas (child sees and points to an apple, then says “Apple!”)

two-word stage

-phase in language development around age two, where children start combining two words to form simple sentences, like “want cookie” or “go car” to omit less essential words (child picks up their favorite toy car and turns to their parent, saying “Want car!”)

overgeneralization

-common error in language development where children apply grammatical rules too broadly, resulting in mistakes like “goed” instead of “went” or “tooths” instead of “teeth” (child learning that adding -ed forms the past tense, so when asked what they did that day, they say “I goed to the park”)

nonverbal manual gestures

-manual gestures are hard or arm movements used to communicate without speaking, such as pointing, waving, or making signs, and often convey emotions, intentions, directions (child waves their arms and points toward the swings to show where they want to go next, and their friends respond by nodding)