Chapter 2: Founders and Foundations of Sociology: Theory

What were the two main goals of the social scientists who founded sociology?

• To understand the major social changes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• To make society better.

This chapter highlights which 6 founders of sociology, and how they carried out the two core commitments of socioloy

• Marx

• Weber

• Durkheim

• Mead

• Addams

• Du Bois

All founders of sociology covered in this chapter unitedly focused on responding to what phenomenon (among other subjects, individually)

Social forces related to industrialization

Conflict theorists covered in this chapter

• Marx

• Weber

Functionalists covered in this chapter

Durkheim

Symbolic interactionists covered in this chapter:

• Mead

• Addams

Who inspired critical race theory?

Du Bois

What are sociological theories used to explain?

• How society works

• The possible solutions to social problems

True or False:

Some sociological theories are more convincing than others

True

Marx’s main beliefs:

• Class conflict over the control of the production of goods leads to inequality in society

• Workers are under “false consciousness” regarding their social class arrangements.

When did Marx believe that workers could overthrow owners (what two conditions must be met)?

1. The economic means of production is sufficiently technologically advanced, and it would easily support everyone in society.

2. The workers united, realizing that they, as a class, were being exploited by the owners.

Explain Marx’s following idea: workers are under “false consciousness” regarding their social class arrangements

Workers know there are class differences, but don’t understand:

• Why differences existed

• How those in power manipulated the system to create differences

• The extent of the differences among classes

This renders their consciousness of the class differences as false.

Bourgeoisie in Marxist contexts

The capitalist class who owns most of society’s wealth and means of production

How can Bourgeoisie keep workers (proletariat) in their false consciousness?

• Workers are primarily exposed to ideas that promote the status quo, and maintain their false consciousness.

• Bourgeoisie worked to prevent workers from realizing that the capitalist system was designed to exploit rather than benefit them.

How did Marx try to unite the proletariat?

Encouraged them to establish “class consciousness”, overthrow ownership society, and transform the economic system from capitalist to communist.

What was Marx’s famous attempt to impart a larger, societal view on the system to the working class?

The Communist Manifesto (book)

True or False:

Conflict theory is a modern extension of Marx’s insights

True

True or False:

Because Marxism inspired modern conflict theory, all conflict theorists must be communist

False.

Many conflict theorists support democracy rather than communism

Explain what is being described:

Begins with the assumption that at any point in time, in any society, there will be different interest groups, different strata of society that have conflicting needs, and that much of what happens politically, socially, or economically is a manifestation of this conflict.

Conflict theory

In terms of conflict theory, what main point do theorists maintain?

At the core of society, there is a struggle for power among competing groups

What did Weber focus on?

The combination of economic and political power

Explain the 3 dimensions that Weber expanded Marx’s ideas into:

1. Class (based on possession of economic resources)

2. Status

3. Party

Which of the following Weber dimension stemming from Marxism is best suited for: Traditional societies?

a) Class

b) Status

c) Party

b) Status

Which of the following Weber dimension stemming from Marxism is best suited for: Industrial capitalist societies?

a) Class

b) Status

c) Party

a) Class

Which of the following Weber dimension stemming from Marxism is best suited for: Industrial and highly rational societies?

a) Class

b) Status

c) Party

c) Party

What is an obvious difference between Weber and Marx?

Weber’s pessimism and Marx’s optimism

Who believed that:

If one aspect of conflict and inequality could be eliminated, others would remain and could even become more important

Weber

Who helped us understand:

How powerful bureaucratic structures can be, and how much of the structure remains intact even when the individuals in charge are replaced?

Weber

What is the most crucial element of power?

Its perceived legitimacy

True or False:

The bureaucracy protects itself

True

Explain how functionalist, Durkheim, views society as opposed to conflict theorists’ views

Society is made up of independent parts, each working for the good of the whole (functionalist) rather than being composed of competing interests (conflict theorist)

Who does the following analogy relate to?

Society is like a biological organism, with each organ dependent on the others for survival.

Durkheim

Who believed that humans are selfish by nature, and need to be channeled and controlled through proper socialization by institutions in society?

Durkheim

Who maintained that society is held together by a sense of connectedness/solidarity that its members feel?

Durkheim

What did Durkheim term the following scenarios:

a) Simpler societies were based on:

b) Complex societies were founded in:

a) Mechanical solidarity

b) Organic solidarity

Mechanical solidarity

• Almost everyone shares a common way of life

• Little room for individualism

• People are bound to one another through tradition and a common way of life

Organic solidarity

• People perform different and often highly selective tasks.

• People come together to exchange services with one another.

• More room for individualism.

• Members depend on one another to survive and prosper, but the ties holding the community together are weaker.

Who believed that at the core of a smooth functioning society lies solidarity?

Durkheim

When did Durkheim believe that societies with increased divisions of labor can achieve stability?

Only if their members are socialized through their institutions to believe that they’re obligated to one another as members of a common community.

Durkheim argued that the existence of external inequality in an industrial society indicates that:

Its institutions aren’t functioning properly

Explain Durkheim’s ideas of:

a) Internal inequalities

b) External inequalities

a) Internal: Based on peoples’ natural abilities

b) External: Abilities forced on people

True or False:

External inequality that prevents some people from fulfilling their innate talents damages all of society and should be eradicated.

True.

This is because an organic society needs all its members to do what they do best in order for it to function most effectively.

Durkheim’s concerns

The problems of how to reduce external inequalities and increase social consensus (solidarity)

• It was up to various institutions in society to create opportunities for all its members to become engaged citizens and share their abilities.

Who was the founder of symbolic interactionism?

Mead

Who was the first to focus on how the mind and the self are created through social processes?

Mead

Instead of looking at the individual as either distinct from or controlled by society, ________________ saw that people are both shaped by and are shapers of society

Mead

Who was interested in how the human self develops through communicating with others via language and other symbolic behaviour (symbolic interaction)?

Mead

Who said that humans are not truly human unless they interact with one another?

• The nature of our reactions with others determines how we see ourselves and our role in society.

Mead

What do symbolic interactionists maintian?

Society is a social construction, continually created and re-created by humans

Explain how changing how we interact with one another, we can change society

As we “practice” certain patterns of interaction, we reinforce the belief system that society “just works that way”.

If we change these interactions, we can change society.

Who was considered the founder of modern social work, and one of the founders of sociology?

Addams

Addam’s main accomplishment

Established one of the first settlement houses in the U.S. (Hull House 1888)

Who is the model for “settlement houses” in the U.S.?

Addams

What vision was the “settlement houses” based on?

• Middle- and upper-class people could move to the city and serve the poor while living among them.

• People in need would be exposed to the culture, values, and knowledge of the educated settlement house workers.

Who believed that all members of society (ad not only the privileged and wealthy) deserve protection?

Addams

How did Addams and her colleagues (Hull House Women’s Club) carry out the two core commitments of sociology, leading them to collect the garbage polluting poor neighbourhoods?

• Used their sociological eyes to notice a pattern of inequality (towards poorer neighbourhoods).

• Used social activism to address the inequity.

Du Bois led the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People for many years, with other cofounders including:

Addams

Who was the first to conduct social scientific research to dismiss the notion of racial inferiority?

Du Bois

Who documented the negative impact of racial discrimination and segregation on the condition of African Americans in the urban North?

Du Bois

Why do sociologists use theory?

To make sense of social patterns

How can looking at the world through a theoretical perspective be beneficial?

It can help us detect social patterns that we might otherwise overlook, and help us figure out where we should concentrate our focus.

What is the sociology of knowledge a subfield of?

Symbolic interactionism

Explain the sociology of knowledge

A theory that much of what we think of as “reality” in large part is seen that way because it has been “constructed” as what we think we know to be reality.

• Perceived knowledge of what IS, and what is RIGHT and WRONG.

Explain the different lenses/levels of analysis which vary among theoretical perspectives:

a) Wide angle lens

b) Detailed angle

a) Wide angle: Looking at larger social patterns.

b) Detailed angle: Views society as closeup

Which of the following examples match with a wide angle lens (analysis and theoretical perspectives)?

a) Functionalism

b) Conflict theory

c) Symbolic interactionism

a) Functionalism

b) Conflict theory

Which of the following examples match with a detailed angle lens (analysis and theoretical perspectives)?

a) Functionalism

b) Conflict theory

c) Symbolic interactionism

c) Symbolic interactionism

What do theories help us achieve?

Important practical goals

What is important to remember when people are discussing sociological theories?

Whenever people use a particular theoretical lens (or any point of view), they’ll be more attuned to some social patterns than others.

Max Weber, writing a quarter to a half century after Marx, saw class as based on which three factors?

• Power

• Wealth

• Prestige

Marx saw class as related to:

The means of production

True or False:

Weber’s expectation was that class consciousness would develop.

Marx is much more skeptical of consciousness developing on the basis of class and argues that there are many different bases for a common class situation.

False.

The opposite is true - Marx’s expectation was that class consciousness would develop.

Weber was much more skeptical of consciousness developing.

True or False:

What Marx called the capitalist society, Weber considered a rational society

True

Weber categorized societies according to the way people think about the world:

a) Pre-industrial societies are bound by:

b) People in industrial societies are guided by:

a) Tradition

b) Rationality

True or False:

Weber endorsed Marx’s prediction that capitalism would self-destruct

False

True or False:

Weber did not desire the triumph of socialism

True

In Marx’s eyes, economic inequality was the root of alienation; whereas, in Weber’s eyes, the root of alienation was:

Bureaucracy

True or False:

Weber argued that an ordered society would not be possible without bureaucracies to ensure the proper functioning of modern institutions (hospitals, police, education, …)

True

True or False:

Weber believed that the spread of bureaucracy would not greatly improve the lives of people

True

Who believes in the following statement?

The orientation of bureaucracy is rational and impersonal. Power is won and held within advanced industrial societies of all types (whether capitalist, communist, or anything in between) by means of bureaucracy.

Weber

In the ____th Centure, Ma Tuan-Lin, a Chinese historian, first recognized social dynamics as an underlying component of historical development.

13

Ma Tuan-Lin, a Chinese historian, first recognized social dynamics as an underlying component of historical development. What did this study chart?

The historical development of Chinese state administration from antiquity in a manner very similar to contemporary institutional analyses.

What is the key to Ibn Khaldun’s (14th Century) analysis?

The distinction between the sedentary life of city people and the nomadic life of pastoral peoples.

Sociology was officially founded by social scientists eager to:

• Understand the major social changes of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• Make society better.

Did all six founders carry out the two core commitments of sociology?

Yes

Which of the 6 founders are considered conflict theorists?

• Marx

• Weber

Which of the 6 founders was pessimistic about anyone’s potential to eradicate inequality, but nevertheless felt obliged to do what they could to promote democracy in their society?

Weber

Which of the 6 founders cautioned against the establishment of sociology as science that should direct society?

Weber

Which of the 6 founders didn’t shy away from using their knowledge to try and guide their country (Germany) in turbulent times?

Weber

Which of the 6 founders’ greatest impact on German society, as an engaged citizen, came toward the end of their life, during and right after World War I?

Weber

Which of the 6 founders believed humans are selfish by nature and must be channeled and controlled through proper socialization by institutions in society?

Durkheim

Which of the 6 founders is considered a functionalist?

Durkheim

Which of the 6 founders believed that properly functioning institutions (e.g., the education system, religion) will ensure that people work for the good of society rather than just for themselves as individuals?

Durkheim

Which of the 6 founders witnessed political and social upheaval that plagued their country (France) during their lifetime, and sought ways to improve it?

Durkheim

Which of the 6 founders used their various positions in the educational system to mold France’s public schools around the idea that gifted people should have a chance (no matter their social status) to become, for example, a medical doctor - who might cure cancer?

Durkheim

Which of the 6 founders argued that solidarity lies at the core of a smooth-functioning society?

Durkheim

Which of the 6 founders are considered symbolic interactionists?

• Mead

• Addams

Which of the 6 founders is considered the father of symbolic interactionism?

Mead

Which of the 6 founders was the first to focus on how the mind and the self are created through social processes?

Mead

Which of the 6 founders argued that people are both shaped by and are shapers of society as opposed to being only one or the other?

Mead

Which of the 6 founders was especially interested in how the human self develops through communicating with others via language and via other symbolic behaviour (hence, the phrase, symbolic interactionism)?

Mead