AeE 424 - Aerodrome Engineering

Aerodrome

A broad term that refers to any location used for aircraft operations, including takeoff and landing. It can range from a simple grass strip to a fully developed airport. Aerodromes may not have extensive facilities like passenger terminals, air traffic control, or customs services.

Airport

A more developed type of aerodrome that meets specific regulatory standards and provides infrastructure for commercial air transport. Airports typically have runways, taxiways, terminals, control towers, hangars, and security/customs facilities for passenger and cargo operations.

Aircraft Stand

A designated area in an apron intended to be used in parking an aircraft.

Apron

A defined area on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fueling, parking or maintenance.

Holding Bay

A defined area where aircraft can be held, or bypassed, to facilitate efficient surface movement of aircraft.

Hot Spot

A location on an aerodrome movement area with a history or potential risk of collision or runway incursion, and where heightened attention by pilot is necessary.

Maneuvering Area

The part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing of aircraft, excluding apron.

Movement Area

That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing of aircraft, consisting of the maneuvering area and the apron(s)

Runway

A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft.

Stopway

A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of take-off run prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in case of an abandoned take-off

Take-off Runway

A runway intended for take-off only.

Threshold

The beginning of the portion of the runway usable for landing

Touchdown Zone

The portion of a runway, beyond the threshold, where it is intended landing aeroplanes first contact the runway.

Commercial Service Airports

Publicly owned airports that have at least 2,500 passenger boardings each calendar year and receive scheduled passenger service.

Passenger boardings

Refer to revenue passenger boardings on an aircraft in service in air commerce whether or not in scheduled service.

Enplanements

Passenger boardings at airports that receive scheduled passenger service

Cargo Service Airports

Airports that, in addition to any other air transportation services that may be available, are served by aircraft providing air transportation of only cargo with a total annual landed weight of more than 100 million pounds.

Landed weight

The weight of aircraft transporting only cargo in intrastate, interstate, and foreign air transportation.

Reliever Airports

Airports designated by the FAA to relieve congestion at Commercial Service Airports and to provide improved general aviation access to the overall community. These may be publicly or privately-owned.

General Aviation Airports

The category includes privately owned, public use airports that enplane 2500 or more passengers annually and receive scheduled airline service.

Towered and Nontowered

Two types of airports

Civil Airports

Airports that are open to the general public.

Military/Federal Government airports

Airports operated by the military, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), or other agencies of the Federal Government.

Private Airports

Airports designated for private or restricted use only, not open to the general public.

Towered Airport

Has an operating control tower. Pilots operating from this are required to maintain two-way radio communication with ATC and to acknowledge and comply with their instructions.

Air traffic control (ATC)

Responsible for providing the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic at airports where the type of operations and/or volume of traffic requires such aservice.

Nontowered Airport

Does not have an operating control tower. The key to communicating at an airport without an operating control tower is selection of the correct common frequency. The acronym CTAF, which stands for Common Traffic Advisory Frequency, is synonymous with this program.

Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)

A frequency designated for the purpose of carrying out airport advisory practices while operating to or from an airport without an operating control tower.

Airside

Includes the runways, taxiways, aprons, aircraft maintenance areas, and air traffic control facilities and equipment, as well as the land that surrounds all of these

Landside

The complex of passenger buildings, cargo terminals and other supporting buildings (e.g., airport administration, utility plants, catering facilities, etc.), ground access facilities (curbside, access roads, automobile parking areas and buildings, railroad stations, etc.), and any additional non-aviation facilities (e.g., hotels, office buildings, shopping areas, etc.) that may be located within an airport’s boundaries.

Airbase

An aerodrome used as a military base by a military force for the operation of military aircraft.

Airstrip

A small aerodrome that consists only of a runway with perhaps fueling equipment. They are generally in remote locations.

Water Aerodrome

An area of open water used regularly by seaplanes or amphibious aircraft for landing and taking off. It may have a terminal building on land and/or a place where the plane can come to shore and dock like a boat to load and unload.

Runway

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), this is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft". It can be equipped by lights and markings.

Taxiway

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), this is a "defined path on a land aerodrome established for the taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link between one part of the aerodrome and another

Apron

The area of an airport where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled, or boarded.

Parking Area

It is part of an apron intended for parking aircraft to enplane/ deplane passengers, load or unload cargo.

Civil Aviation Regulations

__________________ relating to aeroplanes conducting air transport operations stipulate that they shall conduct operations from aerodromes meeting the requirements of CAR-Aerodromes.

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Operators of aeroplanes with less than ______ passenger seats may conduct air transport operations to aerodromes that are not certified, provided specified aerodrome facilities and reporting arrangements meet appropriate standards. The aerodrome facilities standards and procedures required are specified in this document.

Standards

Subject to change from time to time. In general, unless specifically directed by CAAP, existing aerodrome facilities do not need to be immediately modified in accordance with new standards until the facility is replaced or upgraded.

CAAP

Unless otherwise directed by ____________, an existing facility that does not meet the standard specified in this manual must continue to comply with the standard that was applicable to it.

Changes to standards

At a certified or registered aerodrome, an existing aerodrome facility that does not comply with this MOS must be identified and recorded, in the Aerodrome Manual where applicable. This MOS applies to a new facility that is brought into operation, and to an existing facility that is being replaced or improved. Subject to agreement with the CAAP, changes to an existing facility of a minor or partial nature may be exempted.

Exemptions to Standards

When an aerodrome operator is unable to establish compliance with any standard or practice specified in this MOS, the aerodrome operator may apply for exemption from the relevant standard or practice. Application for an exemption must be supported, in writing, by cogent reasons including any aeronautical study conducted and the associated results, and an indication of when compliance with the current standards can be expected.

Conflict with other standards

Compliance with the standards and procedures specified in this MOS does not absolve aerodrome operators from obligations in respect of standards prescribed by other government or statutory authorities. Where another statutory standard conflicts with this MOS, the matter must be referred to CAAP for resolution.

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

CAAP has adopted the ____________________________________ methodology of using a code system, known as the Aerodrome Reference Code, to specify the standards for individual aerodrome facilities that are suitable for use by aeroplanes that have been grouped in a range of performances and sizes.

Element 1

A number related to the aeroplane reference field length

Element 2

A letter related to the aeroplane wingspan and outer main gear wheel span.

Runways

Classified as non-instrument (also known as visual or circling approach) and instrument runways.

Instrument runways

Further categorized as: non-precision, precision category I, Category II, and Category IIIA, IIIB and IIIC.

PANS-Aerodromes (Doc 9981)

This section introduces ________________ for the use of aerodromes undertaking an assessment of its compatibility for the type of traffic or operation the aerodrome is intending to accommodate. The material in this addresses operational issues faced by existing aerodromes and provides the necessary procedures to ensure the continued safety of operations. Where alternative measures, operational procedures and operating restrictions have been developed, these are detailed in the aerodrome manual and reviewed periodically to assess their continued validity.

Visual aids

Assist the pilot on approach to an airport, as well as navigating around an airfield and are essential elements of airport infrastructure.

• airport beacon

• obstruction lighting

• aircraft landing operation

• alignment guidance

• height information

What are aerodrome requirements?

Airport Beacon

Lighted to mark an airport intended for use at night. Located on or adjacent to the aerodrome. Designed to produce a narrow horizontal and vertical beam of high-intensity light which is rotated about a vertical axis. They are mounted on top of the control tower or similar high structure in the immediate vicinity of the airport.

12 flashes/min

Airport beacon flashes for civil airports

18 flashes/min

Airport beacon flashes for military airports

Obstruction Lighting

Identified by fixed, flashing, or rotating red lights or beacons. Structures that constitute a hazard to aircraft in flight / landing / takeoff are marked by obstruction lights

• Low-intensity obstruction lights

• Medium intensity obstruction lights

• High-intensity obstruction lights

Types of obstruction lights

Low-Intensity Obstruction Lights

This type of light is also known as the L810 obstruction light. These lights should be utilized when the object’s height above the surrounding ground is less than 147.6 feet or 45 meters.

Medium Intensity Obstruction Lights

There are two types of medium intensity lights – the flashing red L-864 and the flashing white L-865. They are mostly used with obstructions ranging in height from 344.4 to 492 feet (or 105 to 150 meters).

High-Intensity Obstruction Lights

The last type of light is utilized for all objects exceeding 500 feet or 150 meters.

Aircraft landing operation

Pilots must control and coordinate all 6DOF of the aircraft so as to bring the aircraft into coincidence with the desired approach or reference path to the touchdown point on the runway. Pilots need translation information

• aircraft alignment

• Height

• Distance

• rotation information

• rate of descent and the rate of closure with the desired path

Translation

Moving along the different axes X, Y and Z

-Moving up and down along the Y axis is called heaving.

-Moving forwards and backwards along the X axis is called surging.

-Moving left and right along the Z axis is called swaying.

Rotation

Turning in order to face a different axis

-Moving between X and Y is called pitch.

-Moving between X and Z is called yaw.

-Moving between Z and Y is called roll.

Alignment Guidance

Most runways are from 75 - 200 ft wide and from 3000 - 12,000 ft long

• The predominant alignment guidance comes from longitudinal lines that constitute the centerline and edges of the runway.

• All techniques, such as painting, lighting, or surface treatment that develop contrast and emphasize these linear elements are helpful in providing alignment information.

Height Information

The best source for this is the instrumentation in the aircraft. It requires availability of precision ground or satellite-based navigation technologies

• Visual approach slope indicator (VASI)

• Precision approach path indicator (PAPI)

Two (2) types of ground-based visual aids defining the desired glide path

Cockpit Cutoff Angle

Angle between the longitudinal axis of the fuselage and an inclined plane below which the view of the pilot is blocked by some part of the aircraft

α

The larger the angle ___, the more the pilot can see of the ground.

β

The larger the angle ___ (in a pitch-up attitude), the larger must be the angle α to have adequate over-the-nose vision.

Approach speed

Has a profound influence on the angle β.

Visual range (VR)

The maximum distance a pilot can see and some height above the runway h. The horizontal segment of the ground that a pilot can see is H.

11° to 16°

Typical values of α range from

0.5°

Typical values of β are plus minus

Aerodrome Emergency Planning

The process of preparing an aerodrome to cope with an emergency occurring at the aerodrome or in its vicinity.

Objective: To minimize the effects of an emergency, particularly in respect of saving lives and maintaining aircraft operations.

Aerodrome Emergency Plan

Participated by all existing agencies which could be of assistance in responding to an emergency.

• air traffic control units / ATC unit

• rescue and firefighting services

• aerodrome administration

• medical and ambulance services

• aircraft operators

• security services -Police/security

Agencies on the aerodrome

• fire departments

• Police

• health authorities (including medical, ambulance,

• hospital and public health services)

• Military

• coast guard

Agencies off the aerodrome

Public Health Services

Include planning to minimize adverse effects to the community from health-related events and deal with population health issues rather than provision of health services to individuals.

Aerodrome Emergency Plan

Should provide for cooperation and coordination with the rescue coordination center, as necessary.

Aerodrome Emergency Plan

Contains procedures for periodic testing of the adequacy of the plan.

Aerodrome Emergency Exercise

Used for reviewing the results in order to improve its effectiveness.

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Full-Scale Aerodrome Emergency Exercise at intervals not exceeding ______ years and partial emergency exercises in the intervening year to ensure that any deficiencies found during the full-scale aerodrome emergency exercise have been corrected

Series of Modular Tests

_________________ commencing in the first year and concluding in a full-scale aerodrome emergency exercise at intervals not exceeding three years.

Full-Scale Exercise

Purpose of this is to ensure the adequacy of the plan to cope with different types of emergencies.

Partial Exercise

Purpose of this is to ensure the adequacy of the response to individual participating agencies and components of the plan, such as the communications system.

Modular Tests

Purpose of this is to enable concentrated effort on specific components of established emergency plans; and reviewed thereafter, or after an actual emergency, so as to correct any deficiency found during such exercises or actual emergency.

Rescue and Firefighting Service

Its objective is to save lives in the event of an aircraft accident or incident occurring at, or in the immediate vicinity of, an aerodrome.

Rescue and Firefighting Service

Provided to create and maintain survivable conditions, to provide egress routes for occupants and to initiate the rescue of those occupants unable to make their escape without direct aid. The rescue may require the use of equipment and personnel other than those assessed primarily for rescue and firefighting purposes.

• training received

• effectiveness of the equipment

• speed with which personnel and equipment designated for rescue and firefighting purposes can be put into use.

Most Important Factors Bearing on Effective Rescue in a Survivable Aircraft Accident

level of protection

The ________________________ provided at an aerodrome for rescue and firefighting should be equal to the aerodrome category determined using the principles.

Airport Services Manual Doc 9137, Part 1

Where can descriptions of agents be found?

Emergency Access Roads

Should be provided on an aerodrome where terrain conditions permit their construction, so as to facilitate achieving minimum response times. Particular attention should be given to the provision of ready access to approach areas up to 1000 m from the threshold, or at least within the aerodrome boundary. Where a fence is provided, the need for convenient access to outside areas should be considered.

Fire Stations

Should be provided whenever the response time cannot be achieved from a single fire station. It should be located so that the access for rescue and firefighting vehicles into the runway area is direct and clear, requiring a minimum number of turns. All rescue and firefighting vehicles should normally be housed here.

Discrete communication system

Should be provided linking a fire station with the control tower, any other fire station on the aerodrome and the rescue and firefighting vehicles.

alerting system

An _________________ for rescue and firefighting personnel, capable of being operated from that station, should be provided at a fire station, any other fire station on the aerodrome and the aerodrome control tower.

Wildlife Strike Hazard

This shall be assessed through

• the establishment of a national procedure for recording and reporting wildlife strikes to aircraft;

• the collection of information from aircraft operators, aerodrome personnel and other sources on the presence of wildlife on or around the aerodrome constituting a potential hazard to aircraft operations; and

• an ongoing evaluation of the wildlife hazard by competent personnel.

Surface Movement Radar (SMR)

Should be provided at an aerodrome intended for use in runway visual range conditions less than a value of 350 m. Should be provided at an aerodrome when traffic density and operating conditions are such that regularity of traffic flow cannot be maintained by alternative procedures and facilities. Allows the air traffic controller to ‘see’ in real time the aircraft and vehicles movements into the airport control area. It can improve both safety and efficiency of airport traffic by providing the ground controller with a clear picture of the areas or under poor visibility conditions.

Fence or other suitable barrier

Shall be provided on an aerodrome to prevent the entrance to the movement area of animals large enough to be a hazard to aircraft. This shall be provided on an aerodrome to deter the inadvertent or premeditated access of an unauthorized person onto a non-public area of the aerodrome. This is intended to include the barring of sewers, ducts, tunnels, etc., where necessary to prevent access.

Security Lighting

At an aerodrome where it is deemed desirable for security reasons, a fence or other barrier provided for the protection of international civil aviation and its facilities should be illuminated at a minimum essential level. Consideration should be given to locating lights so that the ground area on both sides of the fence or barrier, particularly at access points, is illuminated.