Psychology Chapter 8

Define cognition

The way information is processed and

manipulated in remembering, thinking, and

knowing

• Everything we do “in our heads”

Define prototypes and be able to identify from an example

Prototypes are the best or most typical examples of a concept, helping to categorize objects or ideas based on common features. For instance, a robin is often considered a prototype of a bird because it exhibits characteristics commonly associated with birds.

What is cognitive psychology

Abroad field that includes the study of mental processes,

such as consciousness, memory, language and

intelligence

• Researchers in this area investigate mental processes and

structures that can be observed directly

What are the steps involved in problem solving

1. Find and frame the problem: recognize that a problem exists and define it

2. Develop strategies for solving the problem

• Subgoals: break the problem down into smaller “problems” or intermediate steps to solve

• Algorithms: strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem; can be time consuming

• Ex: following driving instructions or a recipe

• Heuristics: shortcut strategies that suggest a solution to a problem but don’t guarantee an

answer; quick

3. Evaluate solutions: how does the solution compare with our criterion or goal?

4. Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time

algorithms

Algorithms: strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem; can be time consuming

Subgoals

breakdown the problems into smaller problems or steps to solve

Incubation effects and why do they occur

Coming to a solution to a problem quickly after a break from trying to solve it. Current research points toward people forgetting incorrect approaches to solving the problem during the break and coming up with new methods to solving it when returning from break.

Insight Problem? Why do they occur?

Instances of problem solving where individuals have a aha moment as they solve the problem. This occurs because likely because the individuals are simply unaware they are close to the solution because it only involves a single step to reach a solution. Unlike multi step problems where you know when your close to the solution.

Intelligence

An all purpose ability to do well in cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience.

What are challenges is measuring intelligence?

Intelligence test have to measure a variety of things. Validity, reliability, standardization.

What is the intelligence quotient? That is the mean IQ score?

A measure of cognitive abilities expressed as a score, typically calculated from standardized tests. The mean IQ score is set at 100, with standard deviations indicating variations in intelligence levels.

Understand and be able to define g

The letter g refers to general intelligence, a concept introduced by psychologist Charles Spearman. It represents a core intellectual ability that underlies performance across a wide variety of cognitive tasks. Spearman proposed that individuals who perform well on one type of cognitive task (like problem-solving) are likely to do well on others, due to this general cognitive factor.

Define, understand and be able to identify the barriers to problem solving examples.

Functional Fixedness: The tendency to see objects or concepts only in their typical roles, limiting creative thinking.

Mental Set: Using past approaches or patterns to solve new problems, even when they might not work for the current issue.

Define reaction range

describes how genetic predisposition interacts with environmental factors to influence an individual's traits or behaviors. It suggests that each person has a genetically determined range of potential outcomes (e.g., intelligence, height), and the environment plays a role in determining where within that range the individual will fall

For example, a person's genetic makeup might allow for an IQ score anywhere between 90 and 120. The specific score within this range could be influenced by environmental factors such as education, nutrition, and upbringing.

Are group differences in intelligence genetic?

The question of whether group differences in intelligence are genetic remains highly debated. Research suggests that while genetic factors significantly influence individual intelligence, environmental factors, such as socio-economic status, education, and access to resources, play a large role in explaining differences between groups. Most scientists agree that environmental factors are crucial for understanding such disparities

within-group differences in intelligence

refers to variations in intelligence levels among individuals within the same group or population. These differences can arise from a combination of genetic and environmental influences.

between group differences in intelligence

refers to the variations in average intelligence scores observed between different groups or populations. These differences can be influenced by both genetic factors and a range of environmental variables, such as cultural, educational, and socio-economic contexts.

Define the circumvention of limits hypothesis and give an example of how this might apply to a group of experts in a given domain.

The circumvention-of-limits hypothesis suggests that experts in a particular domain are able to overcome inherent limitations in their cognitive or physical capabilities by developing highly specialized skills or strategies. This concept highlights the adaptability and creative problem-solving abilities that come with expertise.

For example, consider chess grandmasters: They don’t rely solely on raw memory to recall every possible move in a game. Instead, they develop pattern recognition skills that allow them to quickly identify optimal strategies based on positions on the board. These advanced strategies enable them to circumvent the limits of memory or processing capacity that a novice player might struggle with.

language

A form of communication – whether spoken, written, or signed – that is based on a system of symbols.

Phonology

A language’s sound system that is made up of phonemes

• Phoneme: A basic sound unit (i.e., ah, eh)

Morphology

A language’s rules for word formation

• Morphemes: The smallest units of language that carries meaning

Roots: The base part of a word (e.g., "run" in "running").

Affixes: Prefixes, suffixes, or infixes that modify the meaning of a root (e.g., "-ing" in "running").

Grammar

The set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use

of words (also known as lexicon)

Syntax

Language’s rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases

and sentences

Semantics

The meaning of words and sentences in a particular language

Pragmatics

The useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is verbalized

Cognitive Capacities Needed to Learn Language

Genetic Predisposition, Language Acquisition Device (LAD), Joint attention, Symbolic play, Language Exposure, is there a critical/sensitive period to learn language.