All AP Psych midterm content

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data + ignore others; influences nearly everything we perceive

the way we perceive the world is heavily influenced by….

expectations, emotion, + motivation

My Wife + My Mother-in-Law

research suggests we process faces to ages more similar of our own than those of other ages

context effect

the surroundings that accompany a stimuli or event influence how the stimuli or event is perceived + remembered

rabbit + bunny

the faster you can identify the 2 animals, the quicker your brain works + the more creative you are

• results can change based on season

similarity

items that are similar to one another are grouped together

we look for distinguishing features — color, shape, etc

happens with visual and auditory stimuli

proximity

items that are near one another seem to be grouped together

continuity

lines are seen as following the smoothest part

figure-ground

organization of the visual fields into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

closure

our brain automatically fills in gaps to create a complete whole object

perceptual constancy

our ability + need to perceive objects as unchanging even as changes may occur in distance, point of view, + illumination

our brain makes adjustments + interpretations without awareness to perceive the world view would not make sense

size constancy

when an object moves closer or further away, we know that the size doesn’t change

color constancy

the color of an object remains the same even if lighting conditions change

shape constancy

even when our viewing angle changes or an object rotates, we know the object isn’t actually changing shape

stroboscopic motion

our tendency to perceive motion is a series of slightly varied still images flashed in rapid succession

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

relative motion

as we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move

motion parallax

objects closer to us appear to move faster than those farther away

gestalt psychology

movement/school of thought in psychology that seeks to explain perceptions in terms of gestalts rather than by analyzing their constituents

gestalts

an organized whole

constituents

individual parts

when making sense of the world around us, gestalt psychology suggest….

we do not simply focus on every small component, instead, our minds tend to perceive objects as a part of a greater whole and as elements of more complex systems

frequency (pitch)

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time is measured in hertz (Hz)

shorter the waves…

higher the pitch

longer the waves…

lower the pitch

intensity (loudness)

amount of energy in a wave determined by amplitude

related to perceived loudness

loudness is measured in…

decibels

cochlea

coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear that transduces sound vibration to auditory signals

frequency theory

the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

place theory

links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

explains how we hear high-pitched sounds, but not how we hear low-pitched sounds because the neural signals generated by low pitch sounds aren’t so neatly localized on the basilar membrane

locating sounds

because we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear faster than the other cause us to localize the sound

noise-induced hearing loss

the progressive inability to detect higher frequency sounds due to damage to the hair cells accrued over time and with use

conduction deafness

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

conduction deafness treatment

surgery or hearing aids

sensorineural deafness

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve, also called nerve deafness

sensorineural deafness treatment

NA, permanent condition

cochlear implant

a device that can be used to covert sounds into electrical signals and stimulate the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

cannot restore normal hearing

outer ear

part of the ear that traps sound waves + channels them to our auditory canal to our eardrum

**think funnel

outer ear parts

pinna, auditory canal, and eardrum

the pinna

made up of cartilage

fleshy outer part of the ear

auditory canal

part of the ear in which sound waves travel

the eardrum

membrane that vibrates when sound waves hit it

middle ear

transmits the vibrations of the eardrum through a piston

from there, they pass on to the cochlea

what are the 3 parts the piston is made up of

hammer, anvil, and stimp

inner ear

inner most part of the ear that contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, + vestibular socks (balance)

part of the ear where transduction happens when it comes to transducing sound

True

T/F: the inner ear converts sound waves into neural messages that our brain can make sense of

basilar membrane

membrane located that vibrates in response to sound

• vibrations lead to activity in auditory pathways

• all of this is going to be sent to the auditory nerve

chemical senses

includes Gustation (taste) + Olfaction (smell)

gustation (taste)

small bumps = papillae

• taste receptors

different because of the molecules entering our body

our taste buds regenerate approximately every 2 weeks

supertasters

genetic condition where people have more papillae on their tongue

sweet

food will be source of energy + glucose, which our bodies use as fuel

• EX) fruit

sour

helped evolutionarily because it helped us to perceive toxic acids that could potentially be acidic + dangerous to eat

• EX) lemons

salty

help us maintain healthy sodium levels in order to function properly

• EX) soft pretzels

bitter

helps to alert ourselves to things that could potentially be poisonous

• EX) coffee

umami

helps us to identify foods that provide protein to assist in growth + tissue repair

• EX) steak

astringent

things that we taste that cause is to involuntarily pucker our mouths + causes us to feel numb

• EX) unripe banana

olfaction (smell)

odorants — chemical compounds

olfactory receptors → located in the mucous membrane of the upper nasal cavity

• regenerate 1x per month

pheromones → dog telling if another is in heat

olfactions link between smell + memory…

brain regions for smell are pretty close to regions in the brain for memory

sensory interaction

when I sense affects another sense, sensory interaction takes place

accurate perception of info. can involve more than one sensory system (multimodal perception)

• smells develop working together

• EX) McGurk Effect

synesthesia

condition where the stimulation of one sensory pathway will automatically trigger the stimulation of another sense

body senses

somatic, kinesthetic (movement), + vestibular (balance)

skin senses

sense of touch is a mix of distinct skin senses

1. pressure, temperature, vibrations, and pain

   1. each have a different sense receptors

pain

results from damage to skin + other tissues

pain provides an evolutionary advantage, + it serves important functions

rare disease — congenital insensitivity to pain (HSAN disorders), can’t feel pain

biopsychosocial experience of pain….

biological

• activity in spinal cord

• genetic difference in endorphin production

• the brains’ interpretation of CNS activity

social

• presence of others

• empathy for others’ pain

• cultural expectations in expression + experience of pain

psychological

• attention to pain

• learning based on experience

• expectation of pain relief

gate control theory

the more neurons fired in response to a pain stimuli, the more intense the pain

substance P - the neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain messages

somatosensory cortex

sensory components of pain

judgments of pain quality, location, intensity

prefrontal cortex

secondary emotional + motivational components of pain

suffering, worrying abt. the future

areas of limbic system

primary emotional + motivational components of pain

immediate unpleasantness

desire to escape

phantom limb pain

pain is not merely the result of stimulation

amputees feel painful sensations that seem to be originating from the missing body part

“cross-wiring” in the somatosensory cortex

• brain plasticity

vestibular sense

balance + knowing whether we’re slide up or not

fluid in semicircular canals in the ear

kinesthesis

sense of our individual body parts’ position + movement

• EX) touching nose w/ eyes closed

psychoactive drugs

chemical substances that affect brain processes and result in altered states of consciousness, mood, and perception.

they cross the blood-brain barrier + interact w/ neurotransmitters at the receptor sites of neurons

made of delivery matters

tolerance

repeated exposure to psychoactive drugs produces it

with repeated exposure to the drug → the drug’s effects lessen

• it takes increasingly larger doses to feel the desired effect

False

T/F: tolerance does not increase the risk of becoming addicted and developing substance use disorder

blood-brain barrier

selective semi-permeable membrane that acts as a filter

protects the brain from infection by filtering out toxins, pathogens, etc

psychoactive drugs are able to cross this

withdrawal

the discomfort + distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

worsens addiction b/c users want to resume taking the drugs to end these symptoms

withdrawal PHYSICAL

fatigue, headaches, tremors, sweating, nausea/vomiting

withdrawal PSYCHOLOGICAL

depression, anxiety, agitation, + anhedonia

anhedonia

reduced motivation or ability to experience pleasure

dependence

a chronic, progressive disease characterized by significant impairment that is directly associated w/ persistent and excessive use of psychoactive substances

dependence symptoms

tolerance, withdrawal, using more than intended, persistent + failed attempts to regulate use, much time spect preoccupied w/ substance (obtaining it and recovering)

important activities reduced b/c of use, continued used despite oversize consequences

dependence PHYSICAL

physical condition caused by chronic use of a tolerance-forming drug, in which abrupt/gradual drug withdrawal causes unpleasant physical symptoms

dependence PSYCHOLOGICAL

a state that involves emotional-motivational withdrawal symptoms upon cessation of drug use

depressants

“downers”

drugs that reduce neural activity + slows body functions

3 kinds of depressants

alcohol, barbiturates, opiates

depressant effects

alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates fall high on chart of perceived harm of drug depressants

alcohol

generally takes abt 1 hr. to metabolize

prolonged + excessive drinking can shrink the brain and cause damage

low doses of alcohol

releases the drinker by slowing down the sympathetic nervous system

• lowering inhibitions and judgements

high doses of alcohol

slows reaction time, causes slurring of speech, and skilled performance deteriorates

how does alcohol affect memory?

disrupts the processing of recent events into long-term memory

barbiturates

drug used to help sleep, relieve anxiety, muscle spasms, and prevent seizures.

True

T/F: barbiturates mimic the effects of alcohol + can be lethal when mixed with alcohol

how do barbiturates mimic alcohol

tranquilizers

drugs that depress CNS activity

• induce sleep, reduce anxiety

causes impaired memory, judgement, + concentration

EX) nembutal, seconal, amytal

opiates (narcotics)

naturally occurring — derived from opium poppy plant

medically prescribed pain relief narcotics (codeine, morphine, fentanyl, and methadone

function of opiates

depress neural activity, temporarily lessen pain + reduce anxiety

high doses produce a feeling of euphoria, constricted pupils, and lethargy

long term effects of opiates

the brain eventually stops producing endorphins

withdrawal of opiates

extreme symptoms and high risk of overdose

True

T/F: all opiates are opioids, but not all opioids are opiates

heroin

subclass of opiates

stimulants

“uppers”

drugs that excite/intensify neural activity and speed-up bodily functions