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Cognition
the activity of knowing and the processes through which knowledge is acquired and problems are solved
Which method did Piaget use to study children?
clinical method; flexible question and answer technique used to discover how children think about problems
Assimilation
process by which we interpret new experiences in terms of existing schemes or cognitive structures
Accommodation
process of modifying existing schemes to better fit new experiences
Schemes
having a set of rules or procedures that can be repeated and generalized across various situations
How do different age groups use schemes?
infants create motor schemes
during their second year, children develop symbolic schemes
older children manipulate symbols in their head
What are the 4 main stages of Piagets theory of cognitive development and the age groups associated with each stage?
sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)
pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
formal operational stage (11-beyond)
What are the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage and their definitions?
simple reflexes (rooting, sucking, grasping)
first habits and primary circular reactions (repeating a body sensation)
secondary circular reactions (infant coos to make a person stay near)
coordination of secondary circular reactions (manipulation)
tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity (object can be made to do multiple things)
internalization of schemes (infant copies others actions)
A not B Error
occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting a familiar hiding place (A) rather than a new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 of the sensorimotor stage
Criticism – Baillargeon’s Possible and Impossible Events
when infants are confused about an “impossible” event they look at it longer
they will look at possible events for a shorter amount of time
Symbolic Function Substage of the Pre-Operational Stage
the child gains the ability to mentally represent an
object that is not present
Egocentrism
inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective
Intuitive Thought Substage of the Pre-Operational Stage
the child uses primitive reasoning and wants to
know the answers to all sorts of questions
Conservation as a Major Task
the idea that certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in some superficial way (liquid, matter, number, length)
Why are pre-operational children unable to conserve?
centration - The tendency to center attention on a single aspect of the problem
static thought - Thought that is fixed on end states rather than changes that
transform one state into another
Concrete Operational Stage
children can perform concrete operations and they can reason logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples
Class Inclusion
logical understanding that the parts are included in the whole
classification or division into sets and subsets and consider interrelationships
Formal Operational Stage
individuals move beyond concrete experience and
think in more abstract and logical ways
Hypothetical Deductive Reasoning
develop hypotheses, or best guesses, and systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem
Imaginary Audience
feeling one is the center of attention & sensing one is on stage
Personal Fable
sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility
What did Vygotsky believe about proximal development?
it varies from society to society
Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Development
the gap between what a learner can accomplish independently and what he or she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a
more-skilled partner
Skills within the Zone of Development
skills at which instruction should be aimed
Skills outside the Zone of Development
either well mastered or still too difficult
Scaffolding
the more-skilled person gives structured help to a less-skilled learner
Private vs Inner Speech
inner speech is subvocalized speech directed and adapted to oneself, whereas private speech is vocalized speech addressed and adapted to oneself
Adult Cognition Post Formal Thought
more complex than formal-operational stage
Memory
our ability to store & later retrieve information
Describe the Memory System
sensory register → working (short term) memory → long term memory; short and long term memory are a consolidation; features of short term memory are central executive, phonological loop, episodic buffer, visual-spatial sketchpad
What are the two types of long term memory?
explicit (declarative), implicit (non-declarative)
Explicit Memory
episodic
autobiographical
semantic
Implicit Memory
skills
procedures
habits
priming
other
Assessment for Explicit Memory
retrieval - getting information out when it is needed
recall - active retrieval without the aid of cues
cued recall - recall with hints
recognition - recognition among options
What happens when there is damage to your hippocampus?
significant impairments in creating new episodic memories
Anterograde Amnesia
unable to form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia
loss of memory for information and events
occurring prior to the incident that caused the amnesia
Infantile Amnesia
we retain very few autobiographical memories of
events that occurred during the first few years of life
Why does memory increase during childhood?
Changes in basic capacities
Changes in memory strategies
Increased knowledge about memory
Increased knowledge about the world
Increased use and accuracy of memory scripts
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon in Adults
a temporary inability to recall a word that a person is certain they know
Learning
the acquisition of knowledge and skills from experience
Classical Conditioning
a stimulus that initially had no effect on an individual comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicits the response (Pavlov) - simplest form of learning
Operant Conditioning
a learner’s behavior becomes either more or less
probable depending on the consequences it produces (B.F. Skinner)
Use of Rewards in Operant Conditioning
increase behavior (both positive and negative)
Use of Punishments in Operant Conditioning
decrease behavior (both positive and negative)
Social Learning Theory
learning by observing the behavior of other people (called models)
Assessing Memory and Learning in Infants
habituation - learning not to respond to a repeated stimulus
operant conditioning - task taps into implicit or procedural memory
imitation - deferred imitation may tap into explicit memory
Which age group is more likely to show habitation?
newborns
Explain the Rovee Collier Mobile Studies
2-3 mos. demonstrating memory; infants remember best when they have repeated exposures to what they are to remember, they are given plenty of cues to help them remember, early memories are cue-
dependent and context-specific
Metacognition/Metamemory in Adolescence
metamemory and metacognition improve
adolescent girls consistently report using more metacognitive strategies than boys
students from higher socioeconomic
backgrounds report more use of metacognitive strategies
Expertise in Adulthood
know more than novices do
have a more organized knowledge base
are able to use their knowledge and the specialized strategies
do not need to think much
Intelligence
the ability to solve problems and adapt and learn from experiences
Mental Age
individual’s level of mental development relative to others
Mental Age Scores Compared to Chronological Age Scores
compared to chronological age, the age from birth
MA scores correspond to CA scores for an average child
bright children have an MA considerably above CA
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
an individual’s MA divided by CA multiplied by
100
What is the average IQ score no matter a persons age?
100
What 5 content areas does the Stanford-Binet 5 cover?
fluid reasoning
knowledge
quantitative reasoning
visual-spatial reasoning
working memory
Intellectual Disability
IQ of 70 and below
organic – disorder (down’s, metabolic disorder, brain disease) – <50
familial/cultural – below average intellectual environment – 55-70
Giftedness
IQ of 130 and above
not linked to mental disorders
noticed advances prior to formal learning
precocious, passion to master,
march to own drummer, deliberate practice
All gifted children are gifted adults. True or False?
False
What IQ score is considered genius
145+
Weschler Intelligence Scales
WISC-V– Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (6-16 yr. olds)
WAIS-IV – Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale
WPPSI-IV – Weschler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (2.5 – 7 yr. olds)
Flynn Effect
generational increase in IQ scores
phenomenon over the twentieth
century
in the U.S., increase is 3–4 IQ points
per decade
children today are better educated
improved nutrition and living
conditions
Gardner’s 8 Sub Types of Multiple Intelligences (examples)
verbal - finding the right words
mathematical - quantifying, hypothesis, proof
spatial - visualizing the world in 3D
bodily kinesthetic - coordinating mind and body
musical - discerning sounds
interpersonal - sensing peoples feelings
intrapersonal - understanding yourself
naturalistic - understanding nature
Savant Syndrome
phenomenon in which extraordinary talent in a
particular area is displayed by a person otherwise intellectually challenged
Prodigies
children who display ability levels comparable to adult professionals
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
analytical - mental processes that lead to success
creative - dealing with novel problems and automating responses
practical - solving problems “street smarts”
more recently, added the importance of goal setting and the construct of wisdom
Creativity
ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique, good
solutions to problems
Emotional Intelligence
focuses on interpersonal, intrapersonal, and practical aspects of successful functioning
Fluid Intelligence
ability to use your mind actively to solve novel problems
believed to represent raw information processing power
Crystallized Intelligence
acquired through schooling and other life experiences
Language
communication whether spoken, written, or signed
based on a system of symbols
Noam Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device
an endowment that enables detection of certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics
Aphasia
loss or impairment of language processing
Broca’s Area
left frontal lobe near temporal area
broca’s aphasia – difficulty in the production of words
Wernicke’s Area
left temporal lobe near occipital area
Wernicke’s aphasia - difficulty with language comprehension & “word salad”
Phonology (phoneme)
the sound system of the language – sounds and combinations (the basic unit of sound in a language)
Morphology (morphemes)
the units of meaning involved in word formation (meaningful units; not all morphemes are works by themselves)
Telegraphic Speech
the use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives
Child-Directed Speech
language spoken in higher pitch than normal, with
simple words and sentences – predicts greater word prediction at 2yrs
Recasting
rephrasing something the child has said in a fully grammatical sentence
Expanding
restating what the child has said, in a linguistically sophisticated form, to add information
Labeling
identifying the names of objects
Overregulation
extending rules to irregular cases (“gooses” for “geese”)
Overextension
applying a word to objects that are incorrect for the word’s meaning
Underextension
applying a word too narrowly
Whole-Language Approach in Reading Development
recognize whole words - use context of what they are reading to guess the meanings of words
Phonics approach in Reading Development
basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds
Note
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