Political Science 1 UC Berkeley Midterm + FINAL Exam

Political Insititutions

Organizations and structures that make, enforce, and interpret laws, such as governments, legislatures, and courts.

* Rules and procedures that structure political competition, shape outcomes, and structure political competition, e.g.:

– Constitution, Congress, Veto, Filibuster, Pardon

• They matter because:

  • Rules of game structure actors’ incentives

  • Persistent

  –

Strategic Politicians

Goal oriented actors: primary goal is reelection. Usually behave strategically in pursuit of goal

Significance: must consider actions to stay in office, use bargaining and compromise

NOT ALWAYS strategic - but to succeed, they nee to be strategic most of the time

Prisoner's dilemma

A situation in which two actors can't agree to cooperate out of fear that the other will find its best interest served by reneging on the agreement.

• Would be better off cooperating with the other side, but instead each side has incentive to defect. Collective action problem

Significance: every successful political exchange must solve the prisoner's dilemma. Each side realizes that it will be better off with a collective outcome

Collective Action Problems

Situations where individuals face a dilemma between pursuing their individual interests and promoting the common good. Housekeeping example:

Collective good = clean house

Free riding = let others clean

Some pay conformity costs – Voters are not like politicians – Opponents exploit it!

Public good

Goods that are collectively produced and freely available for everyone's consumption. Example, vaccines:

Collective benefits to healthy people/reduced transmission:

– Economy – Schools – Reduces lockdowns – Hospital capacity – Herd immunity

Free Rider Problem

Type of prisoner's dilemma where individuals benefit from collective good regardless of whether they pay the costs.

Significance: free riders benefit anyway, so have no incentive to contribute.

Example: not doing your share of house work or not taking a vaccination

Affordable Care Act

Also known as Obamacare, aims to increase the accessibility and affordability of healthcare for Americans.

• expansion of Medicaid, the creation of health insurance exchanges, the prohibition of insurance companies from denying coverage based on pre-existing conditions, and the requirement for most Americans to have health insurance or pay a penalty.

Conformity costs

The difference between what a person ideally would prefer and what the group with which that person makes collective decisions actually does.

Significance: Individuals pay conformity costs whenever collective decisions produce policy outcomes that do not best serve their interests. Dirty house example:

• What if you like a dirty house?

• What if you like to vacuum at 3 am

Transaction Costs

Time, effort, and resources required to make collective decisions

Significance: relevant for designing and evaluating institutions. They can pose a barrier to political agreements. Costs rise as the number of people whose preferences must be taken into account increases. Dirty house example:

• Agreeing on a standard of cleanliness

• Agreeing on a schedule of cleaning

• Keeping track of and punishing free riders

Stamp Act

Tax implemented on colonists to help Britain pay for war. Colonists were angry

Significance: this is a conformity cost that led to revolution.

Home rule

Power given by a state to a locality to enact legislation and manage its own affairs locally. Home rule also applies to Britain's administration of the American colonies

Significance: Britain originally ruled with light touch. Most Americans were free riding on Britain and were fine with Britain's US rule

Boycott of british goods

Colonists began boycotting British goods in protest of the ever increasing taxes they were facing. led to Boston Tea party

Significance: Brits respond with coercive acts that led to the revolutionary war

Continental Congress

A series of legislative bodies that governed the American colonies during the American Revolution against the British

• The FIRST was in 1774 and asserted home rule. boycott British products until taxes were lowered. The

• The SECOND was in 1775 and created the declaration of independence and articles of confederation

Articles of confederation

The original constitution of the United States, which was replaced by the current U.S. Constitution.

The compact among the thirteen original states that formed the basis of the first national government of the United States from 1777 to 1789

Significance: ineffective and replaced in 1787

• Weak central government: could not impose taxes

• Legislative dominance / No executive branch

• Each state has 1 vote in Congress

• Require 9 of 13 for major laws; all 13 to change Articles

Shay's rebellion

Uprising of 1786 led by Daniel Shays, a former captain of the Continental Army and a bankrupt Massachusetts farmer, to protest the state's high taxes and aggressive debt collection policies.

Significance: the rebellion demonstrated the fundamental weakness of the articles of confederation: inability to keep the peace. and stimulated interest in strengthening the national government, leading to the Philadelphia convention that framed the constitution

Virginia Plan

Constitutional blueprint drafted by Madison to reform Articles of Confederation. - introduced at the Constitutional Convention, called for a two-chamber national legislature, with representation in both houses based on a state's population. This favored larger states, like Virginia, because they would have more representatives in both houses.

Significance: Bicameral legislature both appointed by population, wide authority to legislate, veto over state laws, executive chosen by lower. Not enough representation for small states, would lead to Connecticut Compromise

James Madison

Framer of the constitution and writer of Federalist Papers

Significance: pro federalism. Believes in checks and balances can prevent tyranny of the majority

New Jersey Plan

Delegate William Paterson's proposal for reforming the articles of confederation. Introduced at the consitutional convention of 1787, favored by delegates who supported states' rights

Significance: heavily favors small states. Led to the Connecticut compromise

• One chamber

• Representatives selected by state legislatures

• Equal # of representatives per state

• Give power to tax and regulate commerce

Connecticut Compromise

House chosen by the people for two year terms

Senate elected by the legislature of the state and two per state

Significance: house represents people, senate represents the states

Logroll

Refers to the practice of politicians or lawmakers making deals or agreements to support each other's initiatives or legislation. It involves the exchange of support or votes on different issues or bills, often with the goal of advancing each other's interests or achieving specific policy objectives

• The result of legislative vote trading. For example, legislators representing urban districts may vote for an agricultural bill provided that legislators from rural districts vote for a mass transit bill.

Supremacy clause

Clause in article VI of the constitution declaring that national laws are the "supreme" law of the land and therefore take precendence over any laws adopted by the states or localities

Significance: federal government has more power than any of the states

Enumerated powers

The explicit powers given to Congress by the constitution. Specific powers are of taxation, coinage of money, regulation of commerce, and provision of national defense

Significance: These are the things congress explicitly has power to do

Necessary and proper clause

Grants congress the authority to make all laws that are necessary and proper and to execute those laws.

Significance: congress had power to do things that aren't explicitly written in the constitution. Lots of power

Commerce clause

Clause in constitution that gives congress the authority to regulate commerce (the activity of buying and selling, especially on a large scale). with other nations and among the states

Significance: congress given a lot of power

3/5ths compromise

A compromise at the Constitutional Convention that counted each slave as three-fifths of a person for the purpose of apportioning seats in the House of Representatives.

Significance: gave the South more representation than they deserve, was necessary requirement for South to ratify the constitution

Death Spiral and Individual Mandate

“death spiral": used to describe a situation where increasing premiums and decreasing enrollment create a cycle of declining health insurance participation. When healthy individuals drop their coverage due to high costs, it leaves a risk pool with sicker, costlier individuals, causing insurers to raise premiums further, which in turn drives more people away.

"individual mandate": was a provision in the Affordable Care Act (ACA) that required most Americans to have health insurance or pay a penalty, aimed at preventing a death spiral by encouraging healthier individuals to join the insurance pool, spreading the risk and stabilizing prices. Was repealed through tax legislation in 2017.

Separation of powers

The distribution of government powers among several political institutions. In the US, at the national level is divided between the three branches: congress, president, supreme court (executive, legislative, and judicial branches)

Checks and balances

Gives each branch the constitutional authrority to prevent the others from gaining too much power (presidential veto, senate approval, judicial review)

Significance: constitutional mechanism giving each branch the oversight to control other branches.

Electoral college

Body of electors in each state chosen by the voters who formally elect the president and vice president of the USA. Each state's number of electoral votes equals its representation in congress. DC has three votes.

Significance: An absolute majority of the total electoral vote is required to elect the president and vp. Popular vote seemed unrealistic to founders

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius

(2012), the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act (ACA). The Court ruled that the individual mandate, which required most Americans to have health insurance or pay a penalty, was a valid exercise of Congress's taxing power, but it also held that states could not be penalized for choosing not to expand Medicaid under the ACA.

Anti-federalist critiques of Constitution

too much power given to the federal government and not enough states rights

• including fears of a strong central government and lack of a Bill of Rights.

Federalist 10

Written by James Madison, discusses the issue of factions in a democratic government.

• Factions are groups formed by people with common interests that may harm the rights of others or the common good. Madison argues that factions are inevitable due to human nature and diverse interests.

• He suggests that the best way to manage them is through a large, diverse republic with representatives who can balance the different factional interests, ensuring that NO SINGLE FACTION dominates and undermines the democratic system.

Federalist 51

James Madison - discusses the importance of checks and balances in the U.S. government. It argues that a separation of powers between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches is essential for protecting individual liberties.

• emphasizes that each branch should have the means to check the powers of the other two. This system of checks and balances is designed to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and to maintain a stable and just government.

• Ultimately, Federalist No. 51 ensures the protection of the people's rights and freedoms.

Ambition to counter-ambition

A concept central to the U.S. Constitution and the thinking of the Founding Fathers. It means that within the framework of the government, the ambition and self-interest of one branch (such as the legislative, executive, or judicial) should serve as a check on the ambition and power of the other branches.

• It reflects a fundamental principle in the design of the U.S. government, aiming to protect individual liberties and maintain the separation of powers.

Extended republic

Discussed in Federalist No. 10 by James Madison, refers to a large and diverse nation with a wide geographic spread. Madison argues that in an extended republic, it becomes more difficult for any one faction or group to dominate the government due to the diversity of interests and the challenges of organizing a majority.

• This concept reinforces the idea that a larger and more diverse republic is less susceptible to the negative effects of factionalism and can better preserve individual liberties and the common good.

Mischief of factions

Refers to the negative consequences of political parties or interest groups in a democratic society. In Federalist No. 10, James Madison argues that factions, or groups with shared interests, can potentially act against the public good or infringe upon the rights of others.

• He suggests that a large, diverse republic and a system of representation can mitigate the harmful effects of factionalism, allowing for more stable and just governance.

Impeachment

Allows for the removal of certain federal officials, including the President, from office.

• It involves the House of Representatives bringing charges (articles of impeachment) against the official, followed by a trial in the Senate, where a two-thirds majority vote is required for removal.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the US constitution

Significance: anti federalists wanted these to ensure the federal government would not become too powerful and ensured people basic protection

1. Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, right to petition gov. 2. right to bear arms. 3. no quartering troops in private homes w/o owners consent. 4. warrants required for searches and seizures. 5. right to due process, etc. 6. right to fair/speedy trial. 7. jury in civil cases. 8. no cruel/unusual punishment. 10. essentially federalism

Tenth Amendment

Emphasizes the principle of federalism.

• It states that any powers not delegated to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states or the people, thereby ensuring that states have authority over matters not explicitly addressed by the federal government.

Single-Payer Healthcare System

A healthcare financing model in which the government, typically at the national level, is the sole payer for all healthcare services. Under this system, everyone has access to essential medical services, and healthcare providers are paid by the government, effectively eliminating the need for private health insurance companies.

Public Option

A healthcare reform proposal that involves creating a government-run health insurance plan to compete alongside private insurance options in a market. - purpose is to provide consumers with an alternative, potentially more affordable healthcare coverage choice while promoting competition within the health insurance industry.

Federalism vs Unitary system

• Federalism: system of government where power is shared between a central (national) government and subnational (state or provincial) governments. The advantages of federalism include increased local autonomy and the ability to adapt policies to regional needs, while its disadvantages may involve coordination challenges and potential duplication of efforts.

• Unitary state: has a centralized government where power is held at the national level. Unitary states often have stronger central authority, simplifying governance, but they may risk overlooking local nuances and needs.

Dual (“layer cake”) federalism vs cooperative (“marble cake”) federalism

Dual: often likened to a "layer-cake," refers to a clear separation of powers and responsibilities between the federal and state governments. In this model, each level of government has distinct and limited roles, akin to the separate layers of a cake.

Cooperative federalism: often called a "marble-cake," represents a more intertwined relationship where federal and state governments cooperate and share responsibilities in various policy areas, resulting in a blending of powers.

Seven Years' War

(1756-1763) involved Britain, France, Spain, and Prussia. Began as a result of ongoing imperial rivalries and territorial disputes among major European powers, including Great Britain and France, and their struggle for colonial dominance In North America.

Is often referred to as the French and Indian War because of the significant role of Native American allies on both sides. The war ultimately resulted in the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which redrew colonial boundaries and greatly expanded British colonial holdings, but it also left a legacy of colonial resentment that contributed to the American Revolution.

Block grants

A type of federal grant-in-aid to state or local governments that provide them with a fixed amount of funding to address specific policy areas, such as education or healthcare. Unlike categorical grants, which come with strict guidelines, block grants offer more flexibility to the recipient governments in how they allocate and spend the funds, allowing them to tailor programs to their specific needs and priorities.

Significance: better for the states, as they have power over how to spend money. Federal government prefers giving out categorical grants

Categorical grants

A type of financial assistance provided by the federal government to state and local governments for specific, narrowly defined purposes. These grants come with strict guidelines and requirements, ensuring that the funds are used for particular programs or projects, as opposed to block grants, which offer more flexibility to recipient governments.

Significance: states always need funding, and this is the way the federal government can force the states into using the money how they want or no more cash for the states. Gives federal government leverage

Unfunded mandates

Government regulations or requirements imposed on state or local governments by higher levels of government (usually the federal government) without providing funding to cover the costs of implementation.

• These mandates can strain the financial resources of the receiving governments and are often a source of tension and controversy in intergovernmental relations.

Signifiacance: federal power > state power

Home Rule

A political arrangement that grants a significant degree of self-governance to a region or territory within a larger political entity, typically a nation or state.

Allows the local population to have control over certain legislative, administrative, and policy matters without the need for direct intervention from the central government. Can vary in its scope and degree, the specific powers delegated to the local authorities are often outlined in a constitution or statute.

McCulloch v Maryland

A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case from 1819 that dealt with the constitutionality of the Second Bank of the United States and the power of states to tax federal institutions.

• Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the creation of a national bank by Congress was within its implied powers and that Maryland's attempt to tax the bank was unconstitutional. This case affirmed the principle of implied powers and the supremacy of federal law over state law, strengthening the authority of the federal government.

Gonzalez v Raich

(2005) was a U.S. Supreme Court case that upheld the federal government's authority to regulate and prohibit the use of marijuana, even when it was allowed for medicinal purposes under state law.

• The Court ruled that the federal government's power to regulate interstate commerce extended to the regulation of locally grown and consumed marijuana because it could potentially impact the national market for the drug.

US v Lopez

Lopez brought a gun to school in Texas, legal in the state but violated federal law that made schools gun-free. Supreme Court ruled that Congress cannot intervene under the commerce clause. Court ruled that an empirical connection needed to be made between a law provision and its effect on interstate commerce before the national government could make a policy that supersedes state policy in the traditional domain of state jurisdiction

Significance: victory for states rights

US v Morrison

(2000), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a provision of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) that allowed victims of gender-motivated violence to sue their attackers in federal court was unconstitutional.

• The Court found that Congress had exceeded its authority under the Commerce Clause and that such matters were primarily within the jurisdiction of the states, not the federal government.

Tyranny of the Majority

A situation where a majority group in a democracy uses its power to suppress or oppress the rights and interests of minority individuals or groups.

• This phenomenon can lead to the marginalization or violation of the rights of minority populations, undermining the principles of democracy and individual liberties. The term underscores the importance of protecting the rights of minority groups in democratic societies and the need for checks and balances to prevent the abuse of power by the majority.

Coercive Federalism

The federal government uses regulations, mandates, or funding as a means to influence or compel state governments to conform to federal policies and objectives.

• This approach often comes with conditions or requirements that states must follow in order to receive federal funding or other benefits, which can lead to a form of control or influence over state policies.

Framer's attitudes toward parties

Madison said the factions were very bad and could destroy democracy

Incentives to build parties

politicians need parties to form coalitions and to win. Parties facilitate collective action central to policy making. Voters need parties to identify with.

Party in government, party in organization, & party in the Electorate

"Party in Government": The elected officials who are members of a specific political party and hold public office. Represent the party's interests and enact its policy agenda in government roles.

"Party in Organization": The formal structures of the political party, such as party leadership, committees, and activists. This group is responsible for organizing and running the party, including managing campaigns and fundraising.

"Party in the Electorate": The ordinary citizens who identify with a political party, vote for its candidates, and support the party's platform and policies. The base of support and potential voters for the party during elections.

Partisanship

A strong and often unwavering allegiance or support for a specific political party or ideology.

• involves individuals identifying closely with a particular party's platform and principles, often leading them to vote for that party's candidates and advocate for its policies.

Turnout

The percentage of eligible voters who actually participate in an election, either by casting their votes or otherwise engaging in the electoral process, such as through early voting or absentee balloting.

• High voter turnout is often considered a sign of a healthy democracy, as it reflects widespread civic engagement and can lead to more representative election outcomes.

Partisan Identification

An individual's psychological attachment or loyalty to a particular political party.

• It involves a person identifying themselves as a member or supporter of a specific party and is a key factor influencing voting behavior and political preferences.

First Party System, Second Party System, etc

First Party System in the United States, from the 1790s to the 1820s, was characterized by a political rivalry between the Federalist Party, led by figures like Alexander Hamilton and John Adams, and the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.

Second Party System emerged in the 1820s and lasted until the 1850s, with the key political parties being the Democratic Party, successor to the Democratic-Republicans, and the Whig Party. This period saw intense debates over issues like the expansion of slavery, economic policies, and immigration.

Primary elections

An election held before the general election in which voters decide which of a party's candidates will be the party's nominee for the general election

Era of Good Feelings

Roughly from 1815 to 1825, when there was a sense of national unity and political harmony. It followed the War of 1812 and saw a decline in partisan politics as the Federalist Party waned, leaving the Democratic-Republicans led by President James Monroe with little opposition, although there were still political and sectional tensions during this time.

Adams Corrupt Bargain

Controversial presidential election of 1824 in the United States. In this election, no candidate received a majority of the electoral votes, so the election was decided by the House of Representatives. It is said that Henry Clay, who was one of the candidates and Speaker of the House at the time, used his influence to help John Quincy Adams secure the presidency in exchange for a position as Secretary of State.

• led to accusations of a "corrupt bargain," many believed that the election process had been manipulated.

Divided government

Occurs when different political parties or factions control different branches of government.

For example, it may involve one party holding the executive branch (the presidency) while another controls one or both houses of the legislative branch (the House of Representatives and the Senate), leading to challenges in passing legislation and sometimes resulting in gridlock.

Progressive Era

Period of American history extending from 1880 to 1920 and associated with the reform of government and electoral institutions in an attempt to reduce corruption and weaken parties

Australian Ballot

A secret ballot, a voting system that ensures the secrecy and privacy of an individual's vote.

• This system was developed to prevent voter intimidation, bribery, and fraud by allowing citizens to vote without revealing their choices, and promoting fair and transparent elections.

New Deal Coalition

Political alliance in the United States during the 1930s and 1940s, largely led by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. It brought together labor unions, minorities, urban voters, and southern Democrats, to support the New Deal policies and the Democratic Party.

• the coalition's support was instrumental in the electoral successes of the Democratic Party during this period

Two party system

Political system in which only two major parties compete for all of the elective offices.

• Third-party candidates usually have few, if any, chances of winning elective office

First-Past-the-Post System vs. Proportional Representation

The First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system is a single-member district electoral method in which the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of whether they receive an absolute majority.

Proportional representation (PR) systems aim to allocate seats in a legislature in proportion to each party's share of the overall vote, ensuring that smaller parties have a greater chance of representation.

Superdelegates

A delegate to the democratic national convention who is eligible to attend because they are an elected party official. The Democrats reserve a specific set of delegate slots for party officials

Gerrymandering

Drawing legislative districts in such a way as to give one political party a disproportionately large share of seats for the share of votes its candidates win

Median Voter Theorem

In a two-candidate election, the candidate who positions themselves closest to the ideological or policy preferences of the median voter is likely to win.

• This theory assumes that voters are rational and vote for the candidate whose positions align most closely with their own, pushing candidates to move toward the center to capture the pivotal median voter.

Electoral Blindspot

The potential for political candidates and policymakers to overlook issues or concerns that are not a priority for the majority of voters.

• In electoral systems that focus on appealing to the broadest possible base, less prominent or minority issues may receive insufficient attention or action from elected officials, leading to underrepresentation or inaction on those concerns.

Parties as Coalitions of Policy Demanders

suggests that political parties are made up of diverse interest groups, each seeking to advance specific policy goals and preferences.

• These groups or factions within a party may form alliances and work collectively to influence the party's platform and legislative agenda.

Goals of Congressional Members

Represent the interests and needs of their constituents and advance the broader policy objectives of their political party or ideology.

These goals involve a combination of responding to the concerns of their constituents through casework, pursuing legislative agendas that align with their party's platform, and seeking reelection through advertising and credit-claiming efforts.

Advertising, Position-Taking, Credit-Claiming, Casework, Particularized Benefits/Earmarks

Advertising - practice of political candidates and parties using various forms of media to promote themselves, communicate their messages, and persuade voters to support their campaigns.

Position-taking - politicians expressing their stances on policy issues to distinguish themselves from opponents and attract support from specific voter groups.

Credit-claiming - incumbents highlight their role in securing government funding or services for their constituents, emphasizing their effectiveness in representing the interests of the local community.

Casework - elected officials or their staff assisting constituents in navigating government bureaucracy and addressing individual concerns, which can enhance their popularity and re-election prospects.

Particularized benefits/earmarks - government funds or projects directed to specific districts or regions, frequently secured by lawmakers to gain local support and facilitate their own re-election campaigns.

Incumbency Advantage

The inherent benefits enjoyed by elected officials who are seeking re-election.

• Incumbents tend to have a higher likelihood of winning re-election due to factors such as name recognition, access to campaign funds, established support networks, and the ability to point to their experience and past accomplishments in office.

Standing Committee

Impermanent legislative committee specializing in a particular legislative area.

• have stable relationships and stable jurisdictions

Rationale for Having Committees

To streamline the legislative process and enhance the efficiency of lawmaking. -

• Committees allow legislators to specialize in particular policy areas, conduct in-depth analysis, deliberate on bills, and facilitate public input, enabling more comprehensive and informed decisions on a wide range of issues.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives. The speaker is elected at the beginning of each congressional session on a party-line vote.

• As head of the majority party, the speaker has substantial control over the legislative agenda of the House.

• Current Speaker: Patrick McHenry

Seniority System

A practice in Congress where the assignment of important leadership positions, committee chairs, and other influential roles is based on the length of time a legislator has served in the institution.

• more senior members of Congress are typically given preference and leadership roles, as they are presumed to have greater experience and expertise.

Polarization

the increasing ideological and partisan divisions between different political groups or individuals, often resulting in sharp disagreements on policy issues and a lack of willingness to compromise.

• It is characterized by the growing gap between conservative and liberal perspectives, which can lead to gridlock and reduced cooperation in government.

Gridlock

a situation where government processes, especially legislative ones, are stalled or hindered due to a lack of agreement or cooperation between different branches or parties.

It can result in the inability to pass new laws, make policy decisions, or address critical issues effectively, leading to governmental inefficiency and public frustration.

Filibuster

parliamentary procedure in the U.S. Senate that allows senators to delay or block a vote on a bill by speaking for an extended period, often indefinitely, unless a supermajority of 60 senators vote to invoke cloture and end the debate.

• Filibusters can be used as a tool to obstruct legislation or nominations, and they have been a source of controversy and debate in American politics.

Cloture Rule

a parliamentary procedure in the U.S. Senate that allows for the termination of a filibuster or extended debate on a particular bill or nomination.

• To invoke cloture, a three-fifths majority vote (usually 60 out of 100 senators) is required, enabling the Senate to proceed to a final vote on the matter being debated.

Budget Reconciliation

A legislative process in the United States that allows Congress to expedite the passage of certain budget-related bills, such as spending cuts or revenue increases.

• streamlines the legislative process by limiting debate and amendments, enabling Congress to make adjustments to the federal budget to align it with established fiscal goals.

Principal-Agent Problem

Highlights the challenges when one party (the principal) delegates decision-making authority and tasks to another party (the agent) with potentially differing interests or goals.

• This situation can create conflicts of interest, as the agent may not always act in the best interest of the principal, leading to moral hazards and challenges in ensuring accountability.

Agency costs/agency loss

Situations where government agencies and officials do not fully act in the best interests of the public due to various factors, including lack of oversight or accountability.

• This can result in inefficiency, waste, and policies that do not align with the preferences of the electorate, and it highlights the challenge of ensuring that government agencies serve the public's interests effectively.

Delegation Dilemma for Congress

the challenge lawmakers face in striking a balance between delegating authority to administrative agencies and maintaining control over the implementation of laws.

• Congress often delegates rule-making and implementation responsibilities to agencies to handle complex, technical issues, but this can lead to concerns about the loss of legislative control and accountability.

Going Public

Presidents “go public” when they engage in intensive public relations to promote their policies to the voters and thereby induce cooperation from other elected officeholders in Washington.

Power to Persuade

A president's ability to influence and convince various audiences, including members of Congress, the public, and interest groups, to support their policy initiatives and agenda.

• It underscores the importance of presidential leadership and communication skills in achieving political goals and advancing legislative priorities.

Rally Around the Flag Effect

A phenomenon where, during times of national crisis or foreign conflict, public approval and support for the President and the government tend to increase.

• It occurs as citizens set aside partisan differences and unite behind their leadership in times of perceived external threats or challenges to national security.

Presidential Approval

Reflects the public's satisfaction with the performance and leadership of the President of the United States.

• It is typically measured through polls and surveys, and high approval ratings can enhance a president's political capital and influence, while low approval can signal challenges in governance and public support.

Unilateral Action

Refers to a situation where the President of the United States takes action or makes decisions without seeking prior approval from Congress.

• This practice is often exercised in areas where the President has executive authority and can include issuing executive orders, proclamations, and making foreign policy decisions.

Informal Powers of the Presidency

Also known as the "bully pulpit," refer to the ability of the President to use their position and influence to shape public opinion and advocate for policies, even if these powers are not explicitly granted by the Constitution.

Presidents often utilize informal powers through speeches, public appearances, and social media to communicate their agenda and mobilize public support for their initiatives

Spoils System

A system in which newly elected officeholders award government jobs to political supporters and members of the same political party.

• the term originated in the saying: “to the victor go the spoils”

Executive Order

A directive issued by the President of the United States to manage and govern the operations of the federal government.

• While not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, executive orders have the force of law and are typically used to implement or interpret existing laws, guide the operation of federal agencies, or address policy issues without congressional legislation.

Executive Agreement

A formal, legally binding agreement between the President of the United States and a foreign government, typically negotiated and entered into without the need for Senate ratification.

These agreements are often used for trade deals, security arrangements, or foreign policy cooperation, and they can be a more flexible alternative to treaties, which require Senate approval.

Treaties

Formal agreements between the United States and foreign governments, negotiated by the President and requiring the approval of two-thirds of the Senate for ratification.

• Treaties play a significant role in shaping the country's international relations, covering topics such as trade, defense, and diplomatic alliances.