Psych Exam 3

binocular cues

depth perception
convergence: closer object = greater convergence

monocular cues

relative size, clarity, linear perspective

Perceptual constancy

interpretation of changing sensations as perception that is relatively consistent

color constancy

consistent perception of color of objects although the amount of light changes (brain automatically adjusts for illumination)

lightness constancy

consistent perception of shade of objects although the amount of light changes

shape constancy

perception that object's shape remains constant despite changing shape of retinal image (ex: spinning coin)

size constancy

perception that the size of objects remains constant despite different sizes of images on retina

classical conditioning

learning to respond to a new stimulus that has been associated with another stimulus that normally produces the behavior (automatic responses) ex: Jim/Dwight prank

operant conditioning

learning behaviors due to experiences with their consequences (punishment/reward to behavior)

observational learning

learning via observation and imitation

neutral stimulus

stimulus that doesn't normally cause a response ex: bell

unconditioned stimulus

stimulus that automatically elicits response without prior conditioning (the thing you don't have to learn a response to) ex: food

unconditioned response

innate response to unconditioned stimulus ex: salivation

conditioned stimulus

previously NS that now elicits a conditioned response due to its association with a US ex: bell

conditioned response

learned response to a stimulus that did not originally elicit the response ex: salivation

acquisition

stage of conditioning in which the association between the 2 stimuli (US and CS) is being learned; need to happen closely together

generalization (classical)

conditioned response to stimuli that are not the conditioned stimulus (but similar to the CS) ex: if Pavlov blew a whistle, dog will salivate bc whistle is similar to a bell

discrimination (classical)

CR occurs only to a specific stimulus (the CS)

extinction (classical)

failure to exhibit the CR to the CS because the CS no longer predicts the US

spontaneous recovery (classical)

reappearance of the CR to the original CS after extinction

second order (higher-order) conditioning

new neutral stimulus becomes associated with previously conditioned stimulus - becomes new CS ex: light on, ring bell, light bell, then food, then light will also become associated with food

conditioned aversion

classically conditioned association between CS and US that causes an unpleasant response ex: bad experience with something once turns you away from it again

counterconditioning

replacing unwanted CR with wanted response ex: gradually introduced cookies to child scared of rabbits to make him not as afraid of them anymore

law of effect (Thorndike)

the tendency of an organism to produce a behavior depends on the effect the behavior has on the environment ex: cat puzzle box

skinner box (operant chamber)

hungry animal placed in box, press bar and they receive food which becomes the reinforcer, increasing bar pressing

reinforcement

consequence of behavior that increases the probability that the behavior will occur

punishment

consequence of behavior that decreases the probability that the behavior will occur

shaping

reinforcing closer and closer approximation of the desired response (break final behavior into parts such as teaching a dog a long trick, break it down into steps)

successive approximations

responses that are increasingly similar to the desired response

positive reinforcement

presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior -> increases probability of that behavior

negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior -> increases probability of that behavior

positive punishment

unpleasant stimulus follows behavior -> decreases probability of that behavior

negative punishment

removal of pleasant stimulus after a behavior -> decreases probability of behavior

generalization (operant)

after a behavior is reinforced in one situation, it is performed in a different situation

discrimination (operant)

a behavior that is reinforced in one situation is not performed in a different situation

extinction (operant)

after the reinforcer is withdrawn, the behavior decreases

spontaneous recovery (operant)

after extinction, the behavior reappears

continuous reinforcement

consequences are the same each time the behavior occurs (better for initial/fast learning)

intermittent (partial) reinforcement

consequences are given only some of the times the behavior occurs (better for long term learning)

ratio schedules of reinforcement

reinforcement is given after the behavior is exhibited a certain number of times

interval schedules of reinforcement

reinforcement is given after a certain amount of time

fixed-ratio

reinforcement for a fixed proportion of responses emitted

variable-ratio

reward for some percentage of responses, but unpredictable number of responses required before reinforcement (ex: going door-to-door to sell something, slot machines)

fixed-interval

reinforcement for responses after a fixed amount of time

variable-interval

reinforcement for responses after an amount of time that is not constant (ex: pop quizzes)

problems with punishment

difficult to identify which behavior is being punished, doesn't teach what not to do, the person may fear the one punishing, does not eliminate existing rewards for the behavior, can model aggression

extrinsic motivation

pursuit of a goal for external rewards (ex: to do it for something else)

intrinsic motivation

pursuit of activity for its own sake (ex: do it for your own good)

overjustification effect

too much reward undermines intrinsic motivation

modeling

imitating others' behavior
ex: Bandura experiments with Bobo doll

memory

information that has been stored and can be retrieved

3 steps of information processing model

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

getting info into memory

storage

maintaining encoded info over time

retrieval

pulling from previously encoded and stored info from memory

3 stages of memory formation

sensory, short-term, long-term

sensory memory

system that holds sensory info (visual, auditory) for a very brief time after the stimulus disappears

iconic memory

visual sensory memory (ex: double take)

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory

short-term memory

for info that is available to consciousness for about 20-30 seconds; capacity is about 5-9 items in memory

long-term memory

relatively permanent memory with unlimited capacity

explicit memory

conscious recollection of material from long-term memory (declarative)

semantic memory

memory of general knowledge and trivia

episodic memory

memory of personally experienced events

implicit memory

not brought to mind consciously, but expressed in behavior (nondeclarative)

procedural memory

memory for the performance of skills ex: riding a bike, skills, abilities

priming

prior exposure to a stimulus affects responses to a later stimulus (ex: read a story with rude words vs without, and then observed for rude behavior afterward)

recall

producing memories using minimal retrieval cues (ex: fill in the blank, short answer)

recognition

knowledge of whether one has previously been exposed to info (ex: multiple choice)

relearning

learning occurs more quickly the second time it is learned

chunking

organizing info into smaller meaningful pieces to facilitate memory

mnemonics

strategies and tricks for improving memory through acronyms or sounds

rehearsal

repeating some information

maintenance rehearsal

rote repetition of material

elaborative rehearsal

thinking about the meaning of the information and examples

levels of processing (Craik & Tulving)

information can be processed at different depths, from shallow to deep

shallow processing

superficial features, such as physical appearance (led to less memorization of list of words)

deep processing

meaning of the words (led to better memorization of list of words)

encoding specificity

specific cues are encoded with the memory

context-dependent memory

the environment in which something is learned serves as a cue for retrieval (ex: take the exam in the same room you learned the material)

state-dependent memory

physical or mental state in which something is learned serves as a cue for retrieval (ex: chew gum while studying so you chew gum during the exam)

encoding failure

memory fails to form due to lack of attention or processing

storage decay

after memory has been stored, may fade

ebbinghaus's forgetting curve

after forming a memory, majority of forgetting occurs initially

retrieval failure

stored memories cannot be accessed (ex: tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)

anterograde amnesia

memory loss for info encountered after a head injury

retrograde amnesia

memory loss for info from before head injury

heuristics

simple rules for making complex decisions/judgements

representativeness heuristic

tendency to see someone or something as belonging to a particular group or category by evaluating how similar this person or thing is to a typical person or thing in that category

base-rate fallacy

using the representativeness heuristic means ignoring base rates

base rates

frequency with which given events or cases occur in the population

availability heuristic

strategy for making judgements based on how easily specific kinds of information can be brought to mind (what you can think of easily, vivid memory)

simulation heuristic (counterfactual thinking)

imagining alternative version of actual events shapes emotional response (thinking about how you could do something differently like 1st, 2nd, 3rd place)

perseverance effect (belief perseverance)

beliefs tend to persist in the face of disconfirming information

confirmation bias

tendency to search for and use information that is consistent with our existing beliefs (like listening to who you resonate with)

outcomes of biligualism

greater cognitive flexibility, think more creatively, higher academic achievement in upper grades

enriched experiences

increases IQ with more stimulus, spur brain development

Romanian orphanages

little contact and stimulation led to cognitive impairment

stereotype threat

threat felt when stereotype is salient to targets of negative stereotypes
ex: a girl being aware of the stereotype that girls are bad at math would cause her to perform worse at math

4 counters to stereotype threat

-be aware of the stereotype threat
-be aware of role models to help
-recognize your values and affirmations
-know that skills are malleable