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Social Cognition

The process by which people perceive, interpret, and remember information about others and social situations.

Attributions

Explanations people create for the causes of behavior and events.

Dispositional Attribution

Explaining behavior based on internal personality traits or characteristics.

Situational Attribution

Explaining behavior based on external circumstances or context.

Attribution Theory

The theory that describes how people infer the causes of behavior by weighing internal versus external factors.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate situational factors when judging others' behavior.

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute our own actions to external circumstances while attributing others' actions to their personalities.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to credit personal successes to internal factors and blame failures on external factors.

Explanatory Style

The habitual way individuals explain the causes of events, influencing whether they have an optimistic or pessimistic outlook.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Attributing positive outcomes to internal, stable factors and negative outcomes to external, temporary ones.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Attributing negative outcomes to internal, stable factors and positive outcomes to external, temporary influences.

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that outcomes are primarily the result of one's own actions.

External Locus of Control

The belief that external forces (chance, fate, or other people) determine outcomes.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases one's preference for it.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A belief or expectation that influences behavior in a way that causes the expectation to come true.

Upward Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone perceived as better in order to motivate self-improvement.

Downward Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone perceived as worse off to enhance self-esteem.

Relative Deprivation

The perception of being deprived of something one believes they deserve relative to others.

Stereotype

A generalized belief or assumption about the characteristics of a group.

Prejudice

A preconceived negative judgment or attitude toward a person or group based on stereotypes. Example: Disliking someone solely because of their cultural background.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of individuals based on their group membership. Example: Rejecting a job applicant because of their gender rather than their qualifications.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious evaluations that influence our feelings and behavior toward people or situations. Example: Favoring one candidate over another without being aware of an underlying bias.

In-Group Bias

The tendency to favor members of one's own group over those in other groups. Example: Believing your own sports team's players are superior to those on a rival team.

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures solely by the values and standards of one's own culture. Example: Assuming your own cultural practices are the "right" way, while others are inferior.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The perception that members of an out-group are all similar to one another, ignoring individual differences. Example: Thinking that all members of another political party share the exact same opinions.

Just World Hypothesis

The belief that the world is fundamentally fair, so people get what they deserve. Example: Assuming that someone's misfortune must be the result of their own poor choices.

Social Norms

The accepted behaviors and expectations within a group or society. Example: Dressing formally for a wedding because it's expected in that setting.

Normative Social Influence

The influence to conform so that one is liked or accepted by others. Example: Laughing at a joke you don't find funny just to fit in with a group.

Informational Social Influence

The influence to accept information from others as evidence about reality. Example: Asking locals for directions in a new city because they likely know the area well.

Central Route to Persuasion

A persuasion process that relies on careful and thoughtful consideration of the message's arguments. Example: A voter examining detailed policy proposals before making a decision.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

A persuasion process that relies on superficial cues, such as the speaker's attractiveness or credibility. Example: Choosing a product because a celebrity endorses it, without researching its features.

Halo Effect

The tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinions in another area. Example: Assuming someone is smart because they are attractive.

Foot in the Door Phenomenon

A technique where agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request later. Example: Agreeing to sign a petition and later being more open to donating money to the cause.

Door in the Face Phenomenon

A persuasion strategy where a large request is made knowing it will be refused so that a smaller request is more likely to be accepted. Example: Requesting a large donation first, then settling for a smaller one when the initial request is turned down.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match the group's norms. Example: Wearing similar clothing as your friends to fit in.

Obedience

Following orders or commands from an authority figure. Example: Completing a task at work because your manager instructed you to do so.

Individualistic Culture

A culture that values personal independence and self-reliance. Example: Emphasizing personal achievement and autonomy in many Western societies.

Collectivistic Culture

A culture that values group cohesion and interdependence. Example: Prioritizing family or community goals over individual ambitions in many Eastern cultures.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussions to enhance the initial leanings of the members, leading to more extreme positions. Example: A group of like-minded people becoming even more convinced of their opinion after a discussion.

Groupthink

A phenomenon where the desire for harmony in a group leads to poor decision-making and suppression of dissenting viewpoints. Example: A team ignoring potential flaws in a plan to maintain consensus.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Deindividuation

A loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group settings, often leading to uncharacteristic behavior.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

Social Facilitation

The tendency to perform better on simple or well-practiced tasks in the presence of others.

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs or behaviors.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation among diverse groups to achieve a common objective.

Social Trap

A situation in which individual rational actions lead to a collectively irrational outcome.

Altruism (Prosocial Behavior)

Selfless behavior intended to benefit others without expecting personal gain.

Social Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will respond to each other in kind, returning benefits for benefits.

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation that individuals will help those who are dependent on them.

Asch Conformity Study

An experiment showing that people may conform to group pressure even when the group is clearly wrong.

Milgram's Experiment

An obedience study in which participants were instructed to deliver (fake) electric shocks, demonstrating high compliance with authority.

Zimbardo's Prison Experiment

A study that simulated a prison environment to show how situational forces can lead to abusive behavior.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts.

Social Influence Theory

The study of how people change their behavior to align with social norms or the expectations of others.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory describing two routes to persuasion: a central route that involves thoughtful analysis and a peripheral route that uses superficial cues.

IO Psychology (Industrial-Organizational Psychology)

The study of human behavior in the workplace, focusing on employee performance, motivation, and organizational dynamics.

Rewards of Helping

The positive psychological benefits and emotions experienced when helping others.

Personality

The unique, enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that characterize an individual. Example: Describing someone as consistently friendly, creative, and reliable.

Psychodynamic Approach

A perspective emphasizing the influence of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences on behavior. Example: Interpreting adult anxiety as stemming from repressed childhood conflicts.

Ego

The part of personality that mediates between instinctual desires (id) and moral constraints (superego). Example: Choosing to study instead of going out with friends by balancing immediate impulses with long-term goals.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety by distorting reality. Example: Using humor to cope with a difficult situation.

Repression

The unconscious process of blocking distressing thoughts or memories. Example: Not remembering a painful childhood event without realizing it.

Rationalization

Justifying behavior or feelings with logical reasons instead of acknowledging the true motives. Example: Blaming a poor exam performance on a confusing test rather than insufficient study.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a safer substitute. Example: Venting frustration from work by arguing with a friend.

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions. Example: Turning aggressive energy into vigorous physical exercise.

Projection

Attributing one's own unwanted thoughts or feelings onto someone else. Example: Criticizing a coworker for being dishonest when you're feeling guilty about your own behavior.

Reaction Formation

Behaving in a manner opposite to one's true feelings. Example: Acting overly kind to someone you secretly dislike.

Denial

Refusing to acknowledge a painful reality or fact. Example: Insisting that a serious relationship problem doesn't exist despite clear evidence.

Regression

Reverting to behaviors characteristic of an earlier developmental stage when faced with stress. Example: An adult throwing a temper tantrum when extremely frustrated.

Projective Tests

Psychological assessments that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal underlying personality traits. Example: Responding to vague images in a test to uncover unconscious conflicts.

Thematic Apperception Test

A projective test that asks individuals to create stories based on ambiguous pictures, revealing motives and concerns. Example: Telling a narrative about overcoming obstacles when shown a picture of a solitary figure.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A projective test using inkblots where individuals interpret the images, offering insight into their personality. Example: Analyzing a subject's interpretations of ambiguous inkblots to explore hidden emotions.

Trait

A stable, enduring characteristic that influences behavior. Example: Being naturally optimistic or reserved.

Trait Theories

Theories that propose personality is composed of a number of measurable traits. Example: The Big Five model, which categorizes personality into five broad dimensions.

OCEAN Traits

A model of personality that includes Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Example: A person high in Conscientiousness is organized, reliable, and disciplined.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method used to identify clusters of related traits underlying personality. Example: Researchers grouping survey responses to reveal common personality dimensions.

Humanistic Perspective

An approach that emphasizes individual potential, personal growth, and self-actualization. Example: A therapist encouraging a client to pursue creative endeavors for personal development.

Self-Actualization

The process of realizing and fulfilling one's potential and capabilities. Example: An artist dedicating their life to perfecting their craft despite obstacles.

Qualities of Self-Actualization

Characteristics such as creativity, authenticity, and openness to new experiences that mark the fulfillment of one's potential. Example: A person who continuously seeks personal growth and embraces change.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance and support provided without judgment, fostering personal growth. Example: A counselor offering empathetic, nonjudgmental support regardless of a client's behavior.