ch 1 position of hydrogen

Study Notes on Water Structure and Hydrogen Bonding

hydrogen ion regulation, diuretics, and kidney diseases

How the earth systems work • What is air made up of of • What are the earth's ecospehere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Biosphere Atmosphere • Different cycles of matter Carbon Cycle Oxygen Cycle Hydrogen Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Phosphorous Cycle • How human activities are causing changes in atmosphere over period of time? • What are the different types of tectonic plate movements and their effects? • To what extent is it possible to use science to prevent or reduce natural disasters?

regulation of potassium and hydrogen ion

[L20] Hydrogen

Electric vehicles and Hydrogen fuel cells

Hydroponics, Nitrogen Cycle, Stoichiometry, Photosynthesis, and Half Reactions Test Review

Hydrogen nucleophiles

hydrogen

Water and Hydrogen Bonding, Molecule Reactions, and Protein Structure

Flashcard 1 Q: What does an Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) test measure? A: • pH (acidity) • Oxygen (O₂) • Carbon dioxide (CO₂) 👉 To evaluate lung function ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 2 Q: Why is ABG taken from an artery, not a vein? A: Because it measures gases before reaching tissues → more accurate for lung function ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 3 Q: What is PaO₂? A: Partial pressure of oxygen → measures how well O₂ moves from lungs to blood ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 4 Q: What is PaCO₂? A: Partial pressure of carbon dioxide → reflects how well CO₂ is removed ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 5 Q: What does pH indicate in ABG? A: Hydrogen ion (H⁺) concentration → acidity/alkalinity of blood ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 6 Q: What is the normal blood pH? A: 7.35 – 7.45 (slightly alkaline) ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 7 Q: What happens if pH < 7.35? A: Acidosis ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 8 Q: What happens if pH > 7.45? A: Alkalosis ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 9 Q: What is the role of HCO₃⁻ (Bicarbonate)? A: Acts as a buffer → prevents pH changes ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 10 Q: What is O₂ Saturation (O₂Sat)? A: Percentage of hemoglobin carrying oxygen ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 11 Q: What is O₂ Content (O₂CT)? A: Total amount of oxygen in blood ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 12 (Important Normals) Q: Normal ABG values? A: • pH: 7.35–7.45 • PaO₂: 75–100 mmHg • PaCO₂: 38–42 mmHg • HCO₃⁻: 22–28 mEq/L • O₂Sat: 94–100% ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 13 Q: Common site for ABG sampling? A: Radial artery (wrist) ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 14 Q: Other sites for ABG collection? A: • Brachial artery • Femoral artery ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 15 Q: Why is the syringe pre-heparinized? A: To prevent clotting ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 16 Q: When should ABG sample be analyzed? A: Within 30 minutes ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 17 Q: What to do if analysis is delayed? A: Put sample on ice ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 18 (Tricky 🔥) Q: What happens if air enters the sample? A: Alters gas values → incorrect results ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 19 (Exam Trap ⚠️) Q: What is a common sampling error? A: Taking venous blood instead of arterial ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 20 Q: Other causes of incorrect ABG results? A: • Too much/too little heparin • Delay in transport • Air bubbles Flashcard 1 Q: What does an Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) test measure? A: • pH (acidity) • Oxygen (O₂) • Carbon dioxide (CO₂) 👉 To evaluate lung function ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 2 Q: Why is ABG taken from an artery, not a vein? A: Because it measures gases before reaching tissues → more accurate for lung function ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 3 Q: What is PaO₂? A: Partial pressure of oxygen → measures how well O₂ moves from lungs to blood ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 4 Q: What is PaCO₂? A: Partial pressure of carbon dioxide → reflects how well CO₂ is removed ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 5 Q: What does pH indicate in ABG? A: Hydrogen ion (H⁺) concentration → acidity/alkalinity of blood ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 6 Q: What is the normal blood pH? A: 7.35 – 7.45 (slightly alkaline) ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 7 Q: What happens if pH < 7.35? A: Acidosis ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 8 Q: What happens if pH > 7.45? A: Alkalosis ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 9 Q: What is the role of HCO₃⁻ (Bicarbonate)? A: Acts as a buffer → prevents pH changes ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 10 Q: What is O₂ Saturation (O₂Sat)? A: Percentage of hemoglobin carrying oxygen ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 11 Q: What is O₂ Content (O₂CT)? A: Total amount of oxygen in blood ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 12 (Important Normals) Q: Normal ABG values? A: • pH: 7.35–7.45 • PaO₂: 75–100 mmHg • PaCO₂: 38–42 mmHg • HCO₃⁻: 22–28 mEq/L • O₂Sat: 94–100% ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 13 Q: Common site for ABG sampling? A: Radial artery (wrist) ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 14 Q: Other sites for ABG collection? A: • Brachial artery • Femoral artery ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 15 Q: Why is the syringe pre-heparinized? A: To prevent clotting ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 16 Q: When should ABG sample be analyzed? A: Within 30 minutes ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 17 Q: What to do if analysis is delayed? A: Put sample on ice ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 18 (Tricky 🔥) Q: What happens if air enters the sample? A: Alters gas values → incorrect results ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 19 (Exam Trap ⚠️) Q: What is a common sampling error? A: Taking venous blood instead of arterial ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 20 Q: Other causes of incorrect ABG results? A: • Too much/too little heparin • Delay in transport • Air bubbles Flashcard 1 Q: What does an Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) test measure? A: • pH (acidity) • Oxygen (O₂) • Carbon dioxide (CO₂) 👉 To evaluate lung function ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 2 Q: Why is ABG taken from an artery, not a vein? A: Because it measures gases before reaching tissues → more accurate for lung function ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 3 Q: What is PaO₂? A: Partial pressure of oxygen → measures how well O₂ moves from lungs to blood ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 4 Q: What is PaCO₂? A: Partial pressure of carbon dioxide → reflects how well CO₂ is removed ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 5 Q: What does pH indicate in ABG? A: Hydrogen ion (H⁺) concentration → acidity/alkalinity of blood ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 6 Q: What is the normal blood pH? A: 7.35 – 7.45 (slightly alkaline) ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 7 Q: What happens if pH < 7.35? A: Acidosis ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 8 Q: What happens if pH > 7.45? A: Alkalosis ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 9 Q: What is the role of HCO₃⁻ (Bicarbonate)? A: Acts as a buffer → prevents pH changes ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 10 Q: What is O₂ Saturation (O₂Sat)? A: Percentage of hemoglobin carrying oxygen ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 11 Q: What is O₂ Content (O₂CT)? A: Total amount of oxygen in blood ⸻ 🧠 Flashcard 12 (Important Normals) Q: Normal ABG values? A: • pH: 7.35–7

1.1 Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding

hydrogen Cycle

Objectives come from your Unit 3 sheet  and the content/examples come from the PowerPoints . ⸻ UNIT 3 COMPLETE STUDY GUIDE (Based strictly on your slides + objectives) ⸻ CHAPTER 11 — CONTROLLING MICROBIAL GROWTH Difference Between Antisepsis, Disinfection, Sanitization, Sterilization, Degerming, Decontamination Sterilization Complete destruction of all microbial life including viruses and endospores. Examples from slides: • Surgical instruments • Syringes • Packaged foods Endospores must be destroyed for something to be considered sterile.  ⸻ Disinfection Destroys most vegetative pathogens on nonliving surfaces. Examples: • Disinfecting medical equipment • Hospital surfaces ⸻ Antisepsis Use of antimicrobial chemicals on living tissue. Examples: • Skin prep before surgery • Cleaning wounds ⸻ Degerming Mechanical removal of microbes by scrubbing. Example: • Handwashing ⸻ Sanitization Reduces microbial numbers to public health safe levels. Examples: • Cleaning food preparation surfaces • Restaurant sanitation ⸻ Decontamination General removal of microbes from objects or surfaces. Example: • Cleaning contaminated hospital equipment ⸻ Difference Between Static and Cidal Cidal Kills microbes. Example Bactericidal antibiotics. ⸻ Static Stops growth but does not kill. Example Bacteriostatic antibiotics. ⸻ Variables That Influence Effectiveness of Antimicrobial Methods 1. Population size Large populations require more time to kill. 2. Nature of microbes Some microbes are more resistant. Example: Bacterial endospores. 3. Temperature Higher temperature increases killing. 4. Concentration of agent 5. Contact time 6. Organic matter present Example: Blood or mucus interfering with disinfectants. 7. Mode of action of agent 8. Biofilms Biofilms protect microbes from antimicrobials.  ⸻ Most Resistant vs Least Resistant Microbes Most resistant: Bacterial endospores Reason: Thick protective layers. ⸻ Less resistant: • Mycobacteria • Gram-negative bacteria • Gram-positive bacteria • Fungi • Viruses Endospores are the target of sterilization methods.  ⸻ Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Agents Agents work by damaging: Cell wall Example Detergents and alcohol disrupt cell wall. ⸻ Cell membrane Effects • Loss of permeability • Leakage of molecules ⸻ Proteins Agents denature proteins. Examples • Heat • Alcohol • Strong acids ⸻ DNA and RNA Example Radiation damaging DNA. ⸻ Practical Concerns When Choosing Control Method Consider: • Does item require sterilization or disinfection? • Can item tolerate heat, pressure, radiation, chemicals? • Cost effectiveness • Safety • Ability of agent to penetrate surfaces.  ⸻ PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL METHODS ⸻ Pasteurization vs Sterilization Pasteurization: Reduces microbial numbers but does not sterilize. Used for: Milk and beverages. Sterilization: Destroys all microbes including endospores. ⸻ Boiling Kills many pathogens but may not destroy endospores. ⸻ Autoclaving Uses steam under pressure. Conditions from slides: 121°C 15 minutes 15 psi Mechanism: Denatures proteins and disrupts metabolism.  ⸻ Most Rigorous Heat Method Incineration (dry heat) Burns microbes completely. ⸻ Ionizing Radiation vs UV Radiation Ionizing radiation Examples: Gamma rays X-rays Effect: Destroys DNA and proteins. Highly penetrating. ⸻ UV radiation Example: Germicidal lamps. Mechanism: Forms pyrimidine dimers (thymine dimers). Effect: DNA replication blocked.  ⸻ Filtration Removes microbes from liquids or air. Examples: • Water purification • Milk filtration • Air filtration systems • HEPA filters • N95 masks HEPA filters remove 99.97% of particles.  ⸻ Osmotic Pressure High salt or sugar removes water from microbes. Examples: Salt: Cured meats Sugar: Jams and jellies Causes plasmolysis and prevents growth.  ⸻ Cold and Drying Cold: Slows microbial metabolism but rarely kills microbes. Drying (desiccation): Removes water necessary for microbial metabolism. Example: Freeze drying (lyophilization).  ⸻ CHEMICAL METHODS ⸻ Characteristics of Good Chemical Antimicrobials • Rapid action • Effective at low concentrations • Broad spectrum • Stable • Non-toxic to tissues • Affordable • Effective in presence of organic matter  ⸻ Major Chemical Agents ⸻ Halogens Examples: • Chlorine • Iodine Common example: Household bleach (sodium hypochlorite) Mechanism: Oxidizes cellular molecules and damages enzymes.  ⸻ Phenols Mechanism: Disrupt cell membranes and denature proteins. Examples: Phenolic disinfectants. ⸻ Alcohols Examples: • Ethanol • Isopropanol Mechanism: Denature proteins and disrupt membranes. Common use: Hand sanitizers. ⸻ Quats Quaternary ammonium compounds. Mechanism: Disrupt membranes. Example: Lysol wipes ⸻ Peroxides Example: Hydrogen peroxide. Mechanism: Forms reactive oxygen molecules that damage cells. ⸻ Detergents / Surfactants Mechanism: Break down lipid membranes. Examples: Soap and cleaning detergents.  ⸻ CHAPTER 12 — ANTIBIOTICS ⸻ Alexander Fleming Discovered penicillin in 1928 from the fungus Penicillium.  ⸻ Characteristics of a Good Antimicrobial Drug • Selective toxicity • High therapeutic index • Targets unique microbial structures • Effective against pathogen • Minimal harm to microbiota  ⸻ Selective Toxicity Ability of a drug to kill microbes without harming host cells. Example: Penicillin targets bacterial cell walls, which human cells lack. ⸻ Susceptibility Tests ⸻ Kirby-Bauer Disc diffusion test. Antibiotic discs placed on bacterial culture. Zone of inhibition measured. Results: Sensitive Resistant  ⸻ MIC Minimum inhibitory concentration. Smallest drug concentration preventing visible growth. ⸻ MBC Minimum bactericidal concentration. Smallest concentration that kills bacteria. ⸻ Therapeutic Index TI = toxic dose / therapeutic dose Example from slides: TI of 10 safer than TI of 1.1.  ⸻ Antibiotic Mechanisms ⸻ Cell Wall Inhibitors Example: Penicillin Mechanism: Prevents cross-linking of NAM-NAG peptidoglycan. Cell bursts due to osmotic pressure. Other examples: • Methicillin • Cephalosporins  ⸻ Cell Membrane Disruption Examples: • Polymyxin • Daptomycin • Colistin Mechanism: Creates pores causing leakage.  ⸻ Protein Synthesis Inhibitors Example: Tetracycline Mechanism: Blocks 30S ribosomal subunit. Other examples: • Erythromycin • Azithromycin • Chloramphenicol  ⸻ DNA / RNA Inhibitors Example: Fluoroquinolones Examples: • Ciprofloxacin • Levofloxacin Mechanism: Inhibit DNA gyrase. ⸻ Metabolic Pathway Inhibitors Example: Sulfa drugs Block folic acid synthesis. Example drug: Bactrim.  ⸻ Drugs for Eukaryotic Pathogens ⸻ Antifungals Examples: • Fluconazole • Amphotericin B • Azoles Target ergosterol in fungal membranes. ⸻ Antiprotozoal Drugs Examples: • Metronidazole • Chloroquine ⸻ Antihelminthic Drugs Examples: • Pyrantel • Mebendazole • Ivermectin  ⸻ Antiviral Drugs Targets: • Viral attachment • Viral transcription/translation • Viral assembly or release Examples: Acyclovir Blocks viral DNA replication. Tamiflu Prevents influenza virus release.  ⸻ HIV Drugs Target steps in HIV replication: 1 Reverse transcriptase 2 Integrase 3 Protease 4 Viral attachment Combination therapy prevents resistance. ⸻ Antibiotic Resistance ⸻ How Resistance Develops • Mutation • Natural selection • Overuse of antibiotics ⸻ Mechanisms of Resistance • Drug-destroying enzymes • Efflux pumps • Target modification • Reduced permeability  ⸻ CHAPTER 13 — MICROBIOTA ⸻ Normal Microbiota Microorganisms living on body surfaces without causing disease. Examples from slides: Skin: Staphylococcus epidermidis Gut: Escherichia coli Breast milk microbes: • Bifidobacterium • Lactobacillus • Streptococcus • Clostridium  ⸻ Benefits of Microbiota • Produce vitamins • Digest food • Stimulate immune system • Produce neurotransmitters • Prevent pathogen colonization  ⸻ Dysbiosis Imbalance in microbiota. Associated diseases: • Diabetes • Obesity • Cancer • Asthma • Allergies • Heart disease  ⸻ Microbiota Development Microbiota develop: 1 During birth 2 Through breast milk 3 Environmental exposure Stable microbiome forms by age 3. ⸻ Probiotics vs Prebiotics Probiotics: Live microbes that improve microbiota. Example: Yogurt. ⸻ Prebiotics: Food that feeds beneficial microbes. Examples: • Garlic • Onions • Asparagus • Agave • Artichokes  ⸻ Fecal Microbiota Transplant Transfer of microbiota from healthy donor. Used for: Clostridioides difficile infections Success rate: 70–90%.  ⸻ Virulence Factors Examples: Adhesion structures: Capsules, fimbriae Exoenzymes: Hyaluronidase Coagulase Biofilms increase resistance.  ⸻ Toxins ⸻ Exotoxins Secreted protein toxins. Examples: • Cytotoxins • Neurotoxins • Enterotoxins ⸻ Endotoxins Found in gram-negative bacteria. Example: LPS containing lipid A. Effects: • Fever • Inflammation • Shock  ⸻ CHAPTER 14 — EPIDEMIOLOGY ⸻ Epidemiology Study of disease frequency, distribution, and control in populations.  ⸻ Epidemiological Terms Index case: First identified patient. Incidence: Number of new cases. Prevalence: Total existing cases. Mortality rate: Deaths in a population. Case fatality rate: Deaths among infected individuals.  ⸻ Disease Occurrence Sporadic: Random cases. Endemic: Constant presence. Outbreak: Localized increase. Epidemic: Large regional increase. Pandemic: Worldwide epidemic.  ⸻ Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAIs) Common examples: • CAUTI Catheter-associated urinary tract infection • CLABSI Central line bloodstream infection • Surgical site infections • Ventilator associated infections  ⸻ Causes of HAIs • Low patient immunity • Antibiotic resistant organisms • Invasive procedures • Healthcare worker transmission Example: Healthcare workers moving between patients.  ⸻ Prevention of HAIs • Medical asepsis • Surgical asepsis • Universal precautions • Infection control officers Examples: • Needlestick precautions • Surface decontamination • Barrier protection  ⸻ If you want, I can also give you the 20–30 questions your professor is MOST likely to put on the exam from these slides. Micro professors tend to repeat the same exact conceptual questions every semester, and your slides have some really obvious ones.

Alpha Hydrogen Acidity Pkas

1.2 Water & Hydrogen Bonding

Topic 1.1: Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding

Intermolecular Forces and Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogels and Natural Polymers