Results for "Prolactin"

Prolactinomas

Anterior Pit - GH/Prolactin

Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing

3.19.25 lecture: Prolactin

Lecture 19 - Prolactin

Endocrine 3 - Adenohypophysis, GH, Prolactin

Lec 21 - Prolactin and GH

Lecture 4- HLSC 3P09- Prolactin

Chapter 1introduction to medterm Word Parts Word Root Definition: The foundation of a medical term Purpose: It serves to provide a general meaning of the word. It illustrates the body part or system being discussed. Sometimes, a word root may be an action. Things to know: A medical term may have more than one word root. Example: Cardi - Word root for “heart” Medical Prefix Definition: A word part added to the beginning of a medical term to change its meaning. Purpose: Medical prefixes illustrate location (of an organ, mass, etc), number of parts, or time (frequency). Things to know: When written alone, medical prefixes are followed by a hyphen to indicate that they are medical prefixes. It is incorrect to write one without a hyphen after. There are 2 subcategories of medical prefixes. Medical prefixes may have more than one meaning. A medical term may only have one medical prefix. Example: anti- meaning “against”. This medical prefix explains location. Medical Suffix Definition: A word part added to the end of a medical term to add meaning. Purpose: Explains condition, disease, or procedure. Things to know: EVERY MEDICAL TERM MUST HAVE A MEDICAL SUFFIX. Oftentimes, a medical suffix is added and combined to a word root, but sometimes it can be added directly to a medical prefix. Similar to a medical prefix, a medical suffix must have a hyphen, but it is written at the beginning of the medical suffix. It is incorrect to write a medical suffix without a hyphen when it is by itself. Medical suffixes may have more than one meaning. Medical terms may only have one medical suffix. Example: -cyte, meaning cell. The medical term “dystrophy” is an example of a medical term with a prefix and suffix combined with each other. The medical prefix -trophy, means nourishment, development, and it explains condition. Combining Vowel Definition: A vowel added to a word to create its combining form or to connect word parts. Purpose: It helps with being able to pronounce the medical term easily. It connects word root to word root Things to know: Sometimes, when connecting a word root to a medical suffix, a combining vowel isn’t needed. To see whether or not a combining vowel is needed, determine if there is a consonant or vowel at the beginning of the medical suffix. If it begins with a consonant, use a combining vowel. If it begins with a vowel, do not use a combining vowel. When writing a word root by itself, it is usually written in its combining form. A combining form is a word root with a combining vowel. A COMBINING FORM IS NOT A WORD PART. A medical term may have more than one combining vowel. Example: Usually the vowel “o”, but occasionally an i or a. Combining form example: “cardi/o” or “cardio”. NO MEDICAL TERMS ARE WRITTEN WITH A “/” IN THEM. Medical Prefix Subcategories Common Prefixes Definition: They are the more common medical prefixes in medical terminology. Example: anti-, a common prefix that explains location Number Prefixes Definition: They pertain to the number of items, or measurement. Example: bi-, a number prefix that explains number of items Medical Suffix Categories Common Suffixes Definition: They are the more common medical suffixes in medical terminology. Example: -cyte, a common suffix Adjective Suffixes Definition: They are used to convert a word root into an adjective. Example: -ac, a adjective suffix that means, “pertaining to” Surgical Suffixes Definition: Indicates surgical procedure. Example: -centesis, a surgical suffix that means, “puncture to withdraw fluid” Procedural Suffixes Definition: Indicates procedural processes or instruments. Example: -gram, a procedural suffix that means, “record or picture” Interpreting Medical Terminology Step 1st… Divide the medical term into its word parts. Example: gastr/o/enter/o/logist 2nd… Define each word part. Example: gastr: word root for stomach o: combining vowel, no meaning enter: word root for small intestine o: combining vowel, no meaning logist: one who studies 3rd… Combine the meaning of the word parts.(You may have to slightly alter the order of the translation). Example: One who studies the stomach and the small intestine. *Spelling; sometimes there will be different pronunciations of a term, but they only have one correct spelling Chapter One Vocabulary Common Combining Forms Combining form Meaning Example w/ definition aden/o gland Adenorrhexis Rupture of gland carcin/o cancer Carcinogenesis Produces cancer cardi/o heart Cardiologist One who studies the heart chem/o chemical Chemotherapy Treatment with chemical cis/o To cut Incision Process of cutting into dermat/o skin Dermatologist One who studies the skin enter/o Small intestine Gastroenterology One who studies the stomach and small intestine gastr/o stomach Gastrorrhexis Rupture of the stomach gynec/o female Gynecology The study of females hemat/o blood Hematic Pertaining to the blood hydr/o water Hydrocele Protrusion of water In the scrotum immun/o protection Immunology Study of protection laryng/o Voice box Otorhinolaryngologist One who studies the ears, nose, and voice box nephr/o kidney Nephritis Inflammation of the kidney ophthalm/o eye Ophthalmology The study of the eye ot/o ear Otic Pertaining to the ear path/o disease Pathology The study of disease pulmon/o lung Pulmonary Pertaining to the lungs rhin/o nose Rhinoplasty Surgical repair of the nose osteo bone Osteoporosis Porous bone Common Prefixes a- Without, away from Aphasia Without speech an- without Anorexic Without appetite ante- Before, in front of Antepartum Before birth anti- Against Antibiotic Against life auto- self Autoimmune Self protection brady- slow Bradycardia Slow heartbeat contra- against Contraception Against conception de- without depigmentation without pigment dys- Painful, difficult, abnormal dystrophy abnormal nourishment endo- Within, inner endoscope instrument to view within epi- Upon, over epigastric upon or over the stomach eso- inward esotropia inward turning eu- Normal, good eupnea normal breathing ex- External, outward exostosis condition of external bone exo- outward exotropia outward turning extra- Outside of extracorporeal outside of the body hetero- different heterosexual pertaining to a different sex homo- same homosexual pertaining to the same sex hydro- water hydrotherapy treatment with water hyper- Over, above hypertrophy over development hypo- Under, below Hypodermic under the skin in- Not; inward infertility not fertile inter- Between, among intervertebral between the vertebrae intra- Within, inside intravenous inside of a vein macro- large macromolecule large molecule micro- small microtia small ears myo- To shut myopia to shut eyes, squint neo- neo neonatal newborn pan- all pansinusitis inflammation of all sinuses para- Beside, near, abnormal; two like parts of a pair paranasal beside the nose per- through percutaneous through the skin peri- around pericardial around the heart post- after postpartum after birth pre- before preoperative before a surgical operation pro- Before, in front of prolactin before milk pseudo- false pseudoscience false science retro- Backward, behind retroperitoneal behind the peritoneum sub- Below, under subcutaneous under, below the skin supra- above suprapubic above the public bone tachy- Rapid, fast tachycardia fast heartbeat trans- Through, across transurethral across the urethra ultra- Beyond, excess ultrasound high frequency sound waves un- not unconscious not conscious Number Prefixes bi- two bilateral two sides hemi- half hemiplegia paralysis of half the body mono- one monoplegia paralysis of one extremity multi- many Multigravida female pregnant more than once nulli- none nulligravida female with no pregnancies poly- many polyuria large amounts of urine primi- first primigravida first pregnancy quadri- four quadriplegia paralysis of 4 semi- half, partial semiconsciousness partially conscious tetra- four tetraplegia paralysis of 4 tri- three tricep muscle with three heads Common Suffixes -algia pain gastralgia stomach pain -cele hernia, Protrusion cystocele Protrusion of the bladder -cyte cell lymphocyte white blood cell -dynia pain cardiodynia heart pain -ecstasis dilation bronchiectasis dilated bronchi -gen that which produces carcinogen that which produces cancer -genesis Produces, generates spermatogenesis produces sperm -genic producing, produced by carcinogenic producing cancer -ia state, condition Bradycardia condition of Slow heartbeat -iasis abnormal condition lithiasis abnormal condition of stones -iatry medical treatment podiatry medical treatment for the foot -ism state of hypothyroidism state of low thyroid -itis Inflammation appendicitis inflammation of the appendix -logist One who studies Cardiologist one who studies the heart -logy Study of pulmonology the study of the lung -lysis destruction hemolysis blood destruction -lytic destruction thrombolytic clot destruction -malacia abnormal softening chondromalacia abnormal cartilage softening -megaly enlargement, large osteomegaly enlarged bone -oid resembling fibroid resembling fibers -oma tumor, mass, swelling carcinoma cancerous tumor -osis abnormal condition cyanosis abnormal condition of being blue -pathy disease adenopathy gland disease -phobia Fear of arachnophobia fear of arachnid -plasia growth, development hyperplasia excessive development -plasm Formation, development neoplasm new formation -ptosis drooping blepharoptosis drooping eyelid -rrhage Excessive, abnormal flow hemorrhage excessive bleeding -rrhagia Abnormal flow, condition cystorrhagia abnormal flow from bladder -rrhea Discharge, flow Rhinorrhea discharge from the nose -rrhexis rupture adenorrhexis ruptured gland -sclerosis hardening arteriosclerosis hardening of an artery -stenosis narrowing angiostenosis narrowing of a vessel -therapy treatment Chemotherapy treatment with chemicals -trophy Nourishment, development hypertrophy excessive development -ule small venule small vein Adjective Suffixes -ac Pertaining to cardiac Pertaining to the heart -al Pertaining to duodenal Pertaining to the duodenum -an Pertaining to ovarian Pertaining to the ovary -ar Pertaining to ventricular Pertaining to a ventricle -ary Pertaining to Pulmonary Pertaining to the lungs -atic Pertaining to lymphatic Pertaining to lymph -eal Pertaining to esophageal Pertaining to the esophagus -iac Pertaining to chondriac Pertaining to cartilage -ic Pertaining to gastric Pertaining to the stomach -ile Pertaining to penile Pertaining to the penis -ine Pertaining to uterine Pertaining to the uterus -ior Pertaining to superior Pertaining to above -nic Pertaining to embryonic Pertaining to an embryo -ory Pertaining to auditory Pertaining to hearing -ose Pertaining to adipose Pertaining to fat -ous Pertaining to intravenous Pertaining to within a vein -tic Pertaining to acoustic Pertaining to hearing Surgical Suffixes -centesis Puncture to withdraw fluid Amniocentesis Puncture to withdraw amniotic fluid -ectomy Surgical removal colectomy surgical removal of the colon -ostomy Surgically create opening adenostomy surgically create opening into a gland -otomy Cutting into gastrotomy cutting into the stomach -pexy Surgical fixation rhinopexy surgical fixation of the nose -plasty Surgical repair otoplasty surgical repair of the ear -rrhaphy suture dermorrhaphy suture of the skin Procedural Suffixes -gram record or picture electroencephalogram record or picture of the electrical activity inside of the brain -graph instrument for recording electrocardiograph instrument for recording the heart's electrical activity -graphy process of recording electrocardiography process of recording the heart's electrical activity -meter instrument for measuring audiometer instrument to measure hearing -metry process of measuring audiometry process of measuring hearing -scope instrument for viewing gastroscope instrument for viewing the stomach -scopy process of viewing gastroscopy process of viewing the stomach Singular Endings to Plural ending singular plural -a vertebra vertebrae -ax thorax thoraces -ex/-ix appendix appendices -is metastasis metastases -ma sarcoma sarcomata -nx phalanx phalanges -on ganglion ganglia -us nucleus nuclei -um ovum ova -y biopsy biopsies *The EMR, or electronic medical record is important because it has important information about patients and the staff that work with them. Nearly 100,00 people die every year from medical errors, so it is imperative to have accurate information. *EHR, or electronic health record is an electronic record of patient information. *HIPAA, or the Health Insurance Portability Accountability Act makes sure that information about patients, including EMR and EHR stay confidential. It is important that patient’s information status confidential because it can greatly impact one's quality of life. HIPAA was passed in 1996. EMR History and Physical Written or dictated by admitting physician; details patient’s history, results of physician’s examination, initial diagnoses, and physician’s plan of treatment. Physician's Orders Complete list of care, medications, tests, and treatments physician orders for patient. Nurse's Notes Record of patient’s care throughout the day; includes vital signs, treatment specifics, patient’s response to treatment, and patient’s condition. Physician's Progress Notes Physician's daily record of patient’s condition, results of physician’s examinations, summary of test results, updated assessment and diagnosis, and further plans for patient’s care. Consultation Reports Reports given by specialists whom physician has asked to evaluate patient. Ancillary Reports Reports from various treatments and therapies patient has received, such as rehabilitation, social services, or respiratory therapy. Diagnostic Reports Results of diagnostic tests performed on patient, principally from clinical lab (e.g., blood tests) and medical imaging (e.g., X-rays and ultrasound). Informed Consent Document voluntarily signed by patient or a responsible party that clearly describes purpose, methods, procedures, benefits, and risks of a diagnostic or treatment procedure. Operative Report Report from surgeon detailing an operation; includes pre- and postoperative diagnosis, specific details of surgical procedure itself, and how patient tolerated procedure. Anesthesiologist’s Report Relates details regarding substances (such as medications and fluids) given to patient, patient’s response to anesthesia, and vital signs during surgery. Pathologist’s Report Report given by pathologist who studies tissue removed from patient (e.g., bone marrow, blood, or tissue biopsy). Discharge Summary Comprehensive outline of patient’s entire hospital stay; includes condition at time of admission, admitting diagnosis, test results, treatments and patient’s response, final diagnosis, and follow-up planResults of diagnostic tests performed on patient, principally from clinical lab (e.g., blood tests) and medical imaging (e.g., X-rays and ultrasound) Healthcare Settings Acute Care or General Hospitals Provide services to diagnose (laboratory, diagnostic imaging) and treat (surgery, medications, therapy) diseases for a short period of time; in addition, they usually provide emergency and obstetrical care. Specialty Care Hospitals Provide care for very specific types of diseases; for example, a psychiatric hospital. Nursing Homes or Long-Term Care Facilities Provide long-term care for patients needing extra time to recover from illness or injury before returning home, or for persons who can no longer care for themselves. Ambulatory Care Centers, Surgical Centers, or Outpatient Clinics Provide services not requiring overnight hospitalization; services range from simple surgeries to diagnostic testing or therapy Physicians’ Offices Provide diagnostic and treatment services in a private office setting. Health Maintenance Organization (HMO) Provides wide range of services by a group of primary-care physicians, specialists, and other healthcare professionals in a prepaid system. Home Health Care Provides nursing, therapy, personal care, or housekeeping services in patient’s own home. Rehabilitation Centers Provide intensive physical and occupational therapy; includes inpatient and outpatient treatment/ Hospices Provide supportive treatment to terminally ill patients and their families.

Endo: Prolactin

Negative and Positive Feedback Loops Control hormone levelsNegative feedback loopHormone release stops in response to decrease in stimulus- Stimulus (eating) raises blood glucose levels- Pancreas releases insulin in response to elevated blood   glucose- Blood glucose decreases as it is used by the body or  stored in the liver - Insulin release stops as blood glucose levels normalize Positive feedback loop As long as stimulus is present, action of hormone continues- Infant nursing at mother’s breast→stimulates  hypothalamus→stimulates posterior pituitary- Oxytocin released→stimulates milk production  and ejection from mammary glands- Milk release continues as long as infant  continues to nurse The Major Endocrine OrgansThe major endocrine organs of the body include: the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, and adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads (ovaries and testes)Endocrine glands - Ductless - Release hormones - Directly into target tissues - Into bloodstream to be carried to target tissuesHormones(Greek word hormone – to set into motion)     Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus o The pituitary gland is approximately the size of a pea. o It hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the hypothalamus of the brain, where it is snugly surrounded by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. o It has two functional lobes – the anterior pituitary (glandular tissue) and the posterior pituitary (nervous tissue). o The anterior pituitary gland controls the activity of so many other endocrine glands (“master endocrine gland”) o The release of each of its hormones is controlled by releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus. o The hypothalamus also makes two additional hormones, oxytocinand antidiuretic hormone, which are transported along the axons of the hypothalamic nuerosecretory cells to the posterior pituitary for storage. They are later released into the blood in response to nerve impulses from the hypothalamus. Oxytocin o Is released in significant amounts only during childbirth and nursing. o It stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle during sexual relations, during labor, and during breastfeeding. o It also causes milk ejection (let-down reflex) in a nursing woman. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) o ADH is a chemical that inhibits or prevents urine production. o ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water from the forming urine; as a result, urine volume decreases, and blood volume increases. o In larger amounts, ADH also increases blood pressure by causing constriction of the arterioles (small arteries). For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as vasopressin. Anterior Pituitary HormonesThe anterior pituitary produces several hormones that affect many body organs. Growth Hormone (GH) o Its major effects are directed to the growth of skeletal muscles and long bones of the body o At the same time, it causes fats to be broken down and used for energy while it spares glucose, helping to maintain blood sugar homeostasis. ProlactinIts only known target in humans is the breast.After childbirth, it stimulates and maintains milk production by the mother’s breasts.Gonadotropic Hormones (FSH and LH) o Regulate the hormonal activity of the gonads (ovaries and testes) o In women, the FSH stimulates follicle development in the ovaries. o In men, FSH stimulates sperm production by the testes. o LH triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary and causes the ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and some estrogen. o LH stimulates testosterone production by the interstitial cells of the testes. Pineal Gland The pineal gland is a small, cone-shaped gland that hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the brain. Melatonin o The only hormone secreted from pineal gland in substantial amounts o Believed to be a “sleep trigger” that plays an important role in establishing the body’s sleep-wake cycle. o The level of melatonin rises and falls during the course of the day and night. o The peak level occurs at night and makes us drowsy o The lowest level occurs during daylight around noon. Thyroid Gland • The thyroid gland is located at the base of the throat, just inferior to the Adam’s apple. • It is a fairly large gland consisting of two lobes joined by a central mass, or isthmus. • The thyroid gland makes two hormones, one called thyroid hormone, the other called calcitonin. Thyroid Hormone o Referred to as body’s major metabolic hormone o Contains two active iodine-containing hormones, thyroxine (T4)and thriiodothyronine (T3) o Most triiodothyronine is formed at the target tissues by conversion of thyronine to triiodothyronine o Thyroid hormone controls the rate at which glucose is “burned”, or oxidized, and converted to body heat and chemical energy (ATP). o Thyroid hormone is also important for normal tissue growth and development, especially in the reproductive and nervous systems. Homeostatic Imbalance ➢ Without iodine, functional thyroid hormones cannot be made. ➢ The source of iodine is our diet (seafoods) ➢ Goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid gland that results when the diet is deficient in iodine. Hyposecretion of thyroxine may indicate problems other than iodine deficiency. If it occurs in early childhood, the result is cretinism. ▪ Results in dwarfism and mental retardation (if discovered early, hormone replacement will prevent mental impairment) Hypothyroidism occurring in adults results in myxedema ▪ Characterized by both physical and mental sluggishness (no mental impairment) ▪ Other signs are puffiness of the face, fatigue, poor muscle tone, low body temperature, obesity, and dry skin (Oral thyroxine is prescribed to treat this condition)   ➢ Hyperthyroidism generally results from a tumor of the thyroid gland. ➢ Extreme overproduction of thyroxine results in a high basal metabolic rate, intolerance of heat, rapid heartbeat, weight loss, nervous and agitated behavior, and a general inability to relax. Graves’ disease o A form of hyperthyroidism o The thyroid gland enlarges, the eyes bulge (exophthalmos) Calcitonin ➢ Second important hormone product of the thyroid gland ➢ Decreases the blood calcium ion level by causing calcium to be deposited in the bones Parathyroid Glands ➢ The parathyroid glands are tiny masses of glandular tissue most often on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. ➢ Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is the most important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of the blood. ➢ Although the skeleton is the major PTH target, PTH also stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium ions. Homeostatic Imbalance o If blood calcium ion level falls too low, neurons become extremely irritable and overactive. They deliver impulses to the muscles so rapidly that the muscles go into uncontrollable spasms (tetany), which may be fatal. o Severe hyperparathyroidism causes massive bone destruction. The bones become very fragile, and spontaneous fractures begin to occur. Thymus o Is located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum. o Large in infants and children, it decreases in size throughout adulthood. o By old age, it is composed mostly of fibrous connective tissue and fat. o The thymus produces a hormone called thymosin and others that appear to be essential for normal development of a special group of white blood cells (T lymphocytes) and the immune response. Adrenal Glands o The two adrenal glands curve over the top of the kidneys like triangular hats. o It is structurally and functionally two endocrine organs in one.   • it has parts made of glandular (cortex) and neural tissue (medulla) • The central medulla region is enclosed by the adrenal cortex, which contains three separate layers of cells. Hormones of the Adrenal CortexThe adrenal cortex produces three major groups of steroid hormones, collectively called corticosteroids: 1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) ➢ Are produced by the outermost adrenal cortex cell layer. ➢ Are important in regulating the mineral (salt) content of the blood, particularly the concentrations of sodium and potassium ions. ➢ These hormones target the kidney tubules(Distal Convulating Kidney Tubles) that selectively reabsorb the minerals or allow them to be flushed out of the body in urine. ➢ When the blood level of aldosterone rises, the kidney tubule cell reabsorb increasing amounts of sodium ions and secrete more potassium ions into the urine. ➢ When sodium is reabsorbed, water follows. Thus, the mineralocorticoids help regulate both water and electrolyte balance in body fluids. 2. Glucocorticoids (Cortisone and Cortisol)  ➢ Glucocorticoids promote normal cell metabolism and help the body to resist long-term stressors, primarily by increasing the blood glucose level. ➢ When blood levels of glucocorticoids are high, fats and even proteins are broken down by body cells and converted to glucose, which is released to the blood. ➢ For this reason, glucocorticoids are said to be hyperglycemic hormones. ➢ Glucocorticoids also seem to control the more unpleasant effects of inflammation by decreasing edema, and they reduce pain by inhibiting the pain-causing prostaglandins. ➢ Because of their anti-inflammatory properties, glucocorticoids are often prescribed as drugs to suppress inflammation for patients with rheumatoid arthritis. ➢ Glucocorticoids are released from the adrenal cortex in response to a rising blood level of ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone). 3. Sex Hormones ➢ In both men and women, the adrenal cortex produces both male and female sex hormones throughout life in relatively small amounts. ➢ The bulk of the sex hormones produced by the innermost cortex layer are androgens (male sex hormones), but some estrogens (female sex hormones) are also formed. Homeostatic Imbalance1. Addisson’s disease (hyposecretion of all the adrenal cortex hormones) ✓ Bronze tone of the skin (suntan) ✓ Na (sodium) and water are lost from the body ✓ Muscles become weak and shock is a possibility ✓ Hypoglycemia (↓ glucocorticoids) ✓ Suppression of the immune system 2. Hyperaldosteronism (hyperactivity of the outermost cortical area) ✓ Excessive water and sodium ions retention ✓ High blood pressure ✓ Edema ✓ Low potassium ions level (hypokalemia) 3. Cushing’s Syndrome (Excessive glucocorticoids) ✓ Swollen “moon face” and “Buffalo hump” ✓ High blood pressure and hyperglycemia (steroid diabetes) ✓ Weakening of the bones (as protein is withdrawn to be converted to glucose) ✓ Severe depression of the immune system 4. Hypersecretion of the sex hormones leads to masculinization, regardless of sex. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla ➢ When the medulla is stimulated by sympathetic nervous system neurons, its cells release two similar hormones, epinephrine(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), into the bloodstream. ➢ Collectively, these hormones are called catecholamines. ➢ The catecholamines of the adrenal medulla prepare the body to cope with short-term stressful situations and cause the so-called alarm stage of the stress response. ➢ Glucocorticoids, by contrast, are produced by the adrenal cortex and are important when coping with prolonged or continuing stressors, such as dealing with the death of a family member or having a major operation (resistance stage). Pancreatic Islets ➢ The pancreas, located close to the stomach in the abdominal cavity, is a mixed gland. ➢ The pancreatic islets, also called the islets of Langerhans, are little masses of endocrine (hormone-producing) tissue of the pancreas. ➢ The exocrine, or acinar, part of the pancreas acts as part of the digestive system. ➢ Two important hormones produced by the islet cells are insulin and glucagon. Insulin ➢ Hormone released by the beta cells of the islets in response to a high level of blood glucose. ➢ Acts on all body cells, increasing their ability to import glucose across their plasma membranes. ➢ Insulin also speeds up these “use it” or “store it” activities. ➢ Because insulin sweeps the glucose out of the blood, its effect is said to be hypoglycemic. ➢ Without it, essentially no glucose can get into the cells to be used. Glucagon ➢ Acts as an antagonist of insulin ➢ Released by the alpha cells of the islets in response to a low blood glucose levels. ➢ Its action is basically hyperglycemic. ➢ Its primary target is the liver, which it stimulates to break down stored glycogen to glucose and to release the glucose into the blood. Gonads ➢ The female and male gonads produce sex cells. ➢ They also produce sex hormones that are identical to those produced by adrenal cortex cells. ➢ The major differences from the adrenal sex hormone production are the source and relative amounts of hormones produced. Hormones of the OvariesBesides producing female sex cells (ova, or eggs), ovaries produce two groups of steroid hormones, estrogens and progesterone. 1. Estrogen (Steroid Hormone) ➢ Responsible for the development of sex characteristics in women (primarily growth and maturation of the reproductive organs) and the appearance of secondary sex characteristics at puberty. ➢ Acting with progesterone, estrogens promote breast development and cyclic changes in the uterine lining (the menstrual cycle) 2. Progesterone (Steroid Hormone) ➢ Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle. ➢ During pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the uterus so that an implanted embryo will not be aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation. Hormones of the TestesIn addition to male sex cells, or sperm, the testes also produce male sex hormones, or androgens, of which testosterone is the most important. 3. Testosterone ➢ Promotes the growth and maturation of the reproductive system organs to prepare the young man for reproduction. ➢ It also causes the male’s secondary sex characteristics to appear and stimulates the male sex drive. ➢ It is necessary for continuous production of sperm. ➢ Testosterone production is specifically stimulated by LH. Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and OrgansPlacenta ➢ During very early pregnancy, a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by the developing embryo and then by the fetal parts of the placenta. ➢ hCG stimulates the ovaries to continue producing estrogen and progesterone so that the lining of the uterus is not sloughed off in menses. ➢ In the third month, the placenta assumes the job of the ovaries of producing estrogen and progesterone, and the ovaries become inactive for the rest of the pregnancy. ➢ The high estrogen and progesterone blood levels maintain the lining of the uterus and prepare the breasts for producing milk. ➢ Human placental lactogen (hPL) works cooperatively with estrogen and progesterone in preparing the breasts for lactation. ➢ Relaxin, another placental hormone, causes the mother’s pelvic ligaments and the pubic symphysis to relax and become more flexible, which eases birth passage. Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System ➢ In late middle age, the efficiency of the ovaries begins to decline, causing menopause. o Reproductive organs begin to atrophy o Ability to bear children ends o Problems associated with estrogen deficiency begin to occur (arteriosclerosis, osteoporosis, decreased skin elasticity, “hot flashes”) ➢ No such dramatic changes seem to happen in men. ➢ Elderly persons are less able to resist stress and infection. ➢ Exposure to pesticides, industrial chemicals, dioxin, and pother soil and water pollutants diminishes endocrine function, which may explain the higher cancer rates among older adults in certain areas of the country. ➢ All older people have some decline in insulin production, and type 2 diabetes mellitus is most common in this age group. BLOOD ➢ It is the only fluid tissue in the body. ➢ A homogenous liquid that has both solid and liquid components. ➢ Taste, Odor, 5x thicker than water ➢ Classified as a connective tissue ❖Living cells = formed elements ❖Non-living matrix = plasma (90% water) Components •Formed elements (blood cells)are suspended in plasma •The collagen and elastin fibers typical of other connective tissues are absent from blood; instead, dissolved proteins become visible as fibrin strands during blood clotting •If a sample of blood is separated, the plasma rises to the top, and the formed elements, being heavier, fall to the bottom. •Most of the erythrocytes (RBCs) settle at the bottom of the tube •There is a thin, whitish layer called the buffy coat at the junction between the erythrocytes and the plasma containing leukocytes (WBCs) and platelets   Physical Characteristics and Volume • Color range ➢ Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red ➢ Oxygen-poor blood is dull red • pH must remain between 7.35–7.45 • Slightly alkaline • Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature • 5-6 Liters or about 6 quarts /body   Functions and Composition of Blood 1. Transport of gases, nutrients and waste products 2. Transport of processed molecules 3. Transport of regulatory molecules 4. Regulation of pH and osmosis 5. Maintenance of body temp 6. Protection against foreign substances 7. Clot formation   Plasma • The liquid part of the blood; 90 percent water • Over 100 different substances are dissolved in this straw-colored fluid: ➢ nutrients ➢ electrolytes ➢ respiratory gases ➢ hormones ➢ plasma proteins; and ➢ various wastes and products of cell metabolism   • Plasma proteins are the most abundant solutes in plasma (albumin and clotting proteins) • Plasma helps to distribute body heat, a by-product of cellular metabolism, evenly throughout the body. Formed Elements Erythrocytes (RBCs) • Function primarily to ferry oxygen to all cells of the body. • RBCs differ from other blood cells because they are anucleate (no nucleus) • Contain very few organelles (RBCs circulating in the blood are literally “bags” of hemoglobin molecules ) •Very efficient oxygen transporters (they lack mitochondria and make ATP by anaerobic mechanisms) • Their small size and peculiar shape provide a large surface area relative to their volume, making them suited for gas exchange • RBCs outnumber WBCs by about 1,000 to 1 and are the major factor contributing to blood viscosity. • There are normally about 5 million cells per cubic millimeter of blood. • The more hemoglobin molecules the RBCs contain, the more oxygen they will be able to carry. • A single RBC contains about 250 million hemoglobin molecules, each capable of binding 4 molecules of oxygen. • Normal hemoglobin count is 12-18 grams of hemoglobin per 100 ml of blood • Men: 13-18g/ml Women: 12-16 g/ml   Homeostatic Imbalance Anemia • a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood, whatever the reason is. • May be the result of (1) a lower-than-normal number of RBCs or (2) abnormal or deficient hemoglobin content in the RBCs.   Polycythemia Vera • An excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes; may result from bone marrow cancer or a normal physiologic response to living at high altitudes, where the air is thinner and less oxygen is available (secondary polycythemia)     Formed Elements Leukocytes (WBCs) • Are far less numerous than RBCs • They are crucial to body defense • On average, there are 4,800 to 10,800 WBCs/mm3 of blood • WBCs contain nuclei and the usual organelles, which makes them the only complete cells in the blood. • WBCs are able to slip into and out of the blood vessels – a process called diapedesis • WBCs can locate areas of tissue damage and infection in the body by responding to certain chemicals that diffuse from the damaged cells (positive chemostaxis) • Whenever WBCs mobilize for action, the body speeds up their production, and as many as twice the normal number of WBCs may appear in the blood within a few hours. • A total WBC count above 11,000 cells/mm3 is referred to as leukocytosis. • The opposite condition, leukopenia, is an abnormally low WBC count (commonly caused by certain drugs, such as corticosteroids and anti-cancer agents) • WBCs are classified into two major groups – granulocytes and agranulocytes – depending on whether or not they contain visible granules in their cytoplasm.   Granulocytes Neutrophils ➢ Are the most numerous WBCs. ➢ Neutrophils are avid phagocytes at sites of acute infection. Eosinophils ➢ Their number increases rapidly during infections by parasitic worms ingected in food such as raw fish or entering through the skin. Basophils ➢ The rarest of the WBCs, have large histamine-containing granules. Histamine ➢ is an inflammatory chemical that makes blood vessels leaky and attracts other WBCs to the inflamed site   Agranulocytes Lymphocytes ➢ Have a large, dark purple nucleus that occupies most of the cell volume. ➢ Lymphocytes tend to take up residence in lymphatic tissues, such as the tonsils, where they play an important role in the immune response. ➢ They are the second most numerous leukocytes in the blood Monocytes ➢ Are the largest of the WBCs. ➢ When they migrate into the tissues, they change into macrophages. ➢ Macrophages are important in fighting chronic infections, such as tuberculosis, and in activating lymphocytes Platelets   ➢ They are fragments of bizarre multinucleate cells called megakaryocytes, which pinch off thousands of anucleate platelet “pieces” that quickly seal themselves off from the surrounding fluids. ➢ Normal adult has 150,000 to 450,000 per cubic millimeter of blood ➢ Platelets are needed for the clotting process that stops blood loss from broken blood vessels. ➢ Average lifespan is 9 to 12 days   Hematopoiesis • Occurs in red bone marrow, or myeloid tissue. • In adults, this tissue is found chiefly in the axial skeleton, pectoral andpelvic girdles, and proximal epiphyses of the humerus and femur. • On average, the red marrow turns out an ounce of new bloodcontaining 100 billion new cells every day. • All the formed elements arise from a common stem cell, thehemocytoblast, which resides in red bone marrow. • Once a cell is committed to a specific blood pathway, it cannotchange. • The hemocytoblast forms two types of descendants – the lymphoidstem cell, which produces lymphocytes, and the myeloid stem cell,which can produce other classes of formed elements.   Formation of RBCs • Because they are anucleate, RBCs are unable to synthesizeproteins, grow, or divide. • As they age, RBCs become rigid and begin to fall apart in 100 to 120 days. • Their remains are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen, liver, and other body tissues. • RBC components are salvaged. Iron is bound to protein as ferritin, and the balance of the heme group is degraded to bilirubin, which is then secreted into the intestine by liver cells where it becomes a brown pigment called stercobilin that leaves the body in feces. • Globin is broken down to amino acids which are released into the circulation.The rate of erythrocyte production is controlled by a hormone called erythropoietin (from the kidneys) • Erythropoietin targets the bone marrow prodding it into “high gear” to turn out more RBCs. • An overabundance of erythrocytes, or an excessive amount of oxygen in the bloodstream, depresses erythropoietin release and RBC production. • However, RBC production is controlled not by the relative number of RBCs in the blood, but by the ability of the available RBCs to transport enough oxygen to meet the body’s demands   Formation of WBCs and Platelets   • The formation of leukocytes and platelets is stimulated by hormones • These colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins not only prompt red bone marrow to turn out leukocytes, but also enhance the ability of mature leukocytes to protect the body. • The hormone thrombopoietin accelerates the production of platelets from megakaryocytes, but little is know about how process is regulated. • When bone marrow problems or disease condition is suspected, bone marrow biopsy is done.   Hemostasis If a blood vessel wall breaks, a series of reactions starts the process of hemostasis (stopping the bleeding). Phases of Hemostasis 1. Vascular spasms occur. 2. Platelet plug forms. 3. Coagulation events occur.       Human Blood Groups • An antigen is a substance that the body recognizes as foreign; it stimulates the immune system to mount a defense against it. • The “recognizers” are antibodies present in plasma that attach to RBCs bearing surface antigens different from those on the patient’s RBCs.   ABO and Rh Blood Types The blood group system recognizes four blood types: • Type A, B, AB, and O • They are distinguished from each other in part by their antigens and antibodies. • Specific antibodies are found in the serum based on the type of antigen on the surface of the RBC   ABO and Rh Blood Types BLOOD TYPE Can Accept From Can Donate To A A, O A, AB B B, O B, AB AB A, B, AB, O AB O O O, A, B, AB   The Rh Factor Rh-Positive Rh-Negative Contains the Rh antigen -No Rh antigen   -Will make antibodies if given Rh-positive blood   -Agglutination can occur if given Rh-positive blood     Summary • Blood is responsible for transporting oxygen, fluids, hormones, and antibodies and for eliminating waste materials. • The major components of blood include the formed elements and plasma. • RBCs transport oxygen and carbon dioxide; WBCs destroy foreign invaders. • WBCs include granulocytes and agranulocytes. • Plasma is the liquid portion of unclotted blood. Serum is the liquid portion of clotted blood • Hemostasis includes four stages: blood vessel spasm, platelet plug formation, blood clotting, and fibrinolysis. • ABO and Rh types are determined by the antigen found on the RBCs

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