NURS 348 — EXAM 4 STUDY GUIDE
Hypertension
Definition & Overview
• Persistent elevation of BP ≥130/80 mmHg (systolic at/greater than 130 OR diastolic at/greater than 80) on at least 2 separate visits, 2+ weeks apart.
• Primary (Essential): No identifiable cause, most common (90–95% of cases).
• Secondary: Caused by another condition or adverse effects of medications.
Etiology/Pathophysiology
• ↑ Peripheral resistance and/or ↑ cardiac output → ↑ blood pressure
→ When blood vessels get narrower (increased resistance) or the heart pumps more forcefully (increased output), pressure inside the vessels rises “like squeezing a hose while water is running”
→ Over time, this high pressure damages the vessel walls and heart muscle, increasing the risk for atherosclerosis, heart attack (myocardial infarction), and stroke.
• ↑ Increased peripheral resistance (arteriolar constriction) → ↑ afterload → left ventricular hypertrophy → heart failure
→ The heart pushes against more resistance (afterload), making the heart muscle thicker (hypertrophy). Over time, it becomes weaker and can lead to heart failure.
• Kidneys retain sodium and water → ↑ circulating volume
→ The kidneys hold onto extra salt and water, adding more fluid to the blood. More fluid means higher pressure—like overfilling a water balloon.
• Activation of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) = vasoconstriction + fluid retention. RAAS is like the “blood pressure booster”
→ When this system turns on, blood vessels tighten and the kidneys save even more salt and water, both of which raise blood pressure.
Risk Factors:
• Primary: family history, ↑ sodium intake, Obesity (BMI >25), African-American ethnicity, smoking, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, and stress.
• Secondary: kidney disease, Cushing’s, pregnancy, pheochromocytoma, medic (steroids, OCPs).
Clinical Manifestations (S/S)
• Often asymptomatic (“silent killer”)!!!
• Headache, dizziness, fainting, vision changes
• Retinal damage on exam (cotton wool spots, papilledema).
• Note: if blood pressure reading is elevated then take in both arms; pt legs uncrossed, and arms above heart; correct cuff
Diagnostics (Dx)/Labs
• Multiple BP readings (both arms, sitting and standing)
• ECG → Left-Ventricular hypertrophy. evaluates cardiac function.
• Labs → ↑ BUN/creatinine (kidney disease), lipids, glucose, cortisol (Cushing’s)
Nursing Care / Nursing Interventions
• Monitor pt BP regularly and accurately, check both arms/correct cuff
• Put on DASH diet (Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension)
Medications
• ⭐️Diuretics (first-line): excess fluids, they need to remove; increase urine
• Thiazides (hydrochlorothiazide) inhibits water & sodium reabsorption and increases potassium excretion
• Side effects/SE: hypokalemia; monitor potassium(K⁺) levels
• Loop (furosemide) decreases sodium reabsorption & increase potassium excretion– SE: hypokalemia; monitor potassium(K⁺) levels
• Potassium-sparing (spironolactone) – SE: hyperkalemia; monitor potassium levels. EKG: peaked T waves
• Also watch out for muscle weakness, irregular, pulse, and dehydration.
• ⭐️Calcium channel blockers (verapamil, amlodipine, and diltiazem) Calcium channel blockers relax and widen blood vessels by preventing calcium from entering muscle cells, leading to lower blood pressure (vasodilation)
• SE: constipation; take fiber for verapamil, and all can ↓HR
• Avoid grapefruit juice ➡️ toxicity, hypotensive effects
Calcium= contract
• ⭐️ACE inhibitors (lisinopril, enalapril): prevents angiotensin II → vasodilation
• SE:
- hypotension; monitor BP and pulse HR
-hyperkalemia; monitor potassium levels
-erectile dysfunction
-⭐️cough linked to angioedema (swollen tissue under the skin around lips, tongue, and glottis); report swelling & discontinue med
• ⭐️ARBs (valsartan, losartan): for ACE-intolerant pts from cough/hyperkalemia. ARBs lower blood pressure by blocking angiotensin II from binding to its receptors, preventing vasoconstriction, and reducing fluid retention.
• SE: angioedema, heart failure, hyperkalemia
• Change position, slowly, report, angioedema, edema, and avoid foods that are high in potassium (bananas, potatoes, apricots, spinach, beans); monitor potassium levels
• Aldosterone-receptor antagonists (eplerenone, spironolactone): blocks aldosterone action.
• SE: kidney damage, hypertriglyceridemia, hyponatremia, and hyperkalemia; monitor kidney function, triglycerides, sodium, and potassium levels
• Avoid Grapefruit juice and St. John’s wort, salt substitutes, and potassium rich foods
• ⭐️Beta blockers (metoprolol, atenolol): blocks beta receptors (adrenaline/epinephrine) ➡️reduces heart rate, cardiac output, and blood pressure ↓HR, ↓CO; use cautiously in diabetics
• SE:
-⭐️erectile dysfunction,
-Fatigue, weakness, depression
-hypoglycemia
• Monitor heart rate (hold if HR is less than 60) and do not suddenly stop taking med (cause rebound hypertension); and don’t give to pts with asthma, airway disease (cause bronchospasms)
• Central Alpha-2 agonists (clonidine): calm the nerves that raise blood pressure, letting blood vessels, relax, and BP go down, ↓SNS tone
• SE: sedation, orthostatic, hypotension, and sexual dysfunction/impotence
• Monitor BP and pulse
• Alpha-adrenergic blockers (prazosin, doxazosin): vasodilator= relaxed BP; give at night to avoid first-dose hypotension. Start with low dose.
• SE: postural hypotension; make sure patient rises slowly and caution.
• Monitor BP 2 hrs after initiation
Complications
• Hypertensive Crisis: usually when patients do not follow the medication regimen
• BP >180/120 → organ damage (encephalopathy, renal failure)
• S/S: severe headache, dizziness, blurred vision, confusion, epistaxis
• Treat: IV antihypertensives (nitroprusside, nicardipine, labetalol); the goal is to lower BP gradually by 20-25% in first hour. Not less than 140/90. Monitor BP every 5-15 mins
Patient Education
• Adhere to medication regimen, don’t abruptly stop even when you feel better
• Change positions slowly
• Encourage DASH diet (low sodium, high fruits/veggies, low-fat dairy) ex: grilled salmon, brown rice, steamed broccoli, and low-fat milk
• Avoid high-sodium foods. Consume less than 2.3 g/day
• Monitor BP at home
• Report signs or symptoms of electrolyte imbalances
• Encourage Weight loss, exercise 3x weekly
• Encourage Smoking cessation
• Encourage Limit alcohol (≤2/day men, ≤1/day women)
• Manage stress
• Report persistent cough or swelling (ACE inhibitor red flag)
Peripheral Venous Disorders(PVD)
Patho: problems with veins where Deoxygenated blood can't get back to the heart Oxygenated blood pools in the extremities. The valves are preventing backflow.
• Venous Thromboembolism (VTE): blood clot that starts in a vein.
-Two types: deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE)
• Venous insufficiency: Improper functioning of the veins. Veins aren’t able to push back blood to the heart which results in swelling, venous stasis ulcers, or cellulitis. Blood can go down into the veins just fine but cannot come back up.
a. VTE ex: Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)
Pathophysiology
• Thrombus (Blood clot) forms in deep veins (usually in legs) → can embolize (travel and block vessel) its way to lungs (PE).
• Caused by Virchow’s triad: venous/blood flow stasis, endothelial injury, hypercoagulability.
Risk Factors
• Surgery (hip, knee, prostate)
• Immobility
• Heart failure
• Pregnancy
• Family hx
• Oral contraceptives or hormone therapy
• Cancer
• COVID-19 (elevated D-dimer)
• Central venous catheters
Clinical Manifestations
• Note that clients can be asymptomatic
• Calf/groin pain (dull/achy), tenderness, warmth, edema
• Unilateral swelling
• Shallow, irregular shaped wounds
• Too much blood, brown/yellow discoloration
• Sudden SOB and sharp chest pain → suspect PE
• Positioning: “Elevate Veins”, position up in “V” shape, above heart. Worsens: if dangling, sitting/dangling for long periods of time.
Diagnostics
• ⭐️Venous duplex ultrasonography = gold standard; it’s an ultrasound of Leg to see blood clot/blood flow through the vessel.
• ⭐️D-dimer ↑ = clot breakdown evidence
• Venogram/MRI if ultrasound inconclusive
Nursing Interventions
• Bed rest until anticoagulation started
• Elevate leg slightly above heart (no knee gatch). Positioning: “EleVate Veins”, think V as veins are up, to keep the veins open.
• Warm compresses
• DO NOT massage leg
• Compression stockings (after swelling ↓)
• Encourage early ambulation when safe
• SCDS
Medications/Procedures
(Anticoagulants) stops blood from clotting, another nurse must be with you
• Unfractionated heparin (given IV): prevents clots and growth of existing clot; monitor platelets, and aPTT (how long it takes blood to clot) (1.5–2× normal). Must be given in facility. MUST MONITOR CLOSELY
• Antidote: protamine sulfate
• Low-molecular-weight heparin (Lovenox/enoxaparin): given SubQ, weight-based, prevention and treatment of DVT, given twice daily, can be used in home setting. Don’t need labs. Monitor for bleeding, and take bleeding precautions (Electric razor, soft toothbrush, environment safety)
• Warfarin (Coumadin): oral, inhibits vitamin K clotting factors overlaps; combined with heparin 3–4 days until INR 2–3 (takes awhile to kick in; therapeutic affect)
• Antidote: vitamin K
• Avoid high vitamin K foods (green leafy veggies)
• Monitor PT (range: 11-13.5 secs), INR (must know range: 2–3)
• Factor Xa inhibitors (fondaparinux; SubQ) (rivaroxaban, apixaban; oral): Prevents development of Thromboses; transitional medication; initial labs are PT and PTT; not routinely
• Direct thrombin inhibitors (dabigatran): directly prevents growth of thrombus Formation, given sub Q ; initiate initial lab values only for PT and APTT.
• Antidote: idarucizumab
• Thrombolytics (tPA): for massive DVT/PE, directly infused into clot, start within 24hrs- 5 days of clot formation; monitor for bleeding, neuro status, dizziness, headache. Take bleeding precautions, pt must use electric razor and, brush teeth with a soft toothbrush.
• Inferior vena cava filter: prevents embolus from reaching lungs (PE), inserted in femoral vein; catches blood clot. Used when pt is unresponsive to other treatments. Monitor: bleeding, hematoma, infection, PE (dyspnea, chest pain, tachycardia). Nursing actions: assess circulation and encourage leg exercises/ambulation early, have patient not sit for too long
Anticoagulant Therapy
Nurse’s Role
• Verify labs,;Double-check with another RN for IV heparin, Assess for bleeding (bruises, gums, stools) and Monitor vitals, mental status (signs of intracranial bleed)
Reversal Agents
• Heparin → protamine sulfate
• Warfarin → vitamin K
• Dabigatran → idarucizumab
Patient Education
• Avoid contact sports
• Soft toothbrush, electric razor
• Avoid sudden diet changes (vitamin K)
Complications (anticoagulants)
• ⭐️Pulmonary embolism: sudden dyspnea, chest pain, SOB, anxiety, tachypnea → emergency; sit, patient in high Fowlers, and administer oxygen and anticoagulants
• ⭐️Ulcer formation(venous): often formed over the medial malleolus, chronic, hard to heal, can reoccur. Can lead to amputation/death. Neuropathic patients might not feel this. Nursing care: Dressing is left 3–7 days; wound vacuums, diet: high in zinc, protein, iron, and vitamins A and C, debride necrotic tissue so wound can heel.
Patient Education(Anticoagulants)
• Bleeding precautions (soft toothbrush, electric razor)
• Report bruising or black stools
• Avoid prolonged sitting/crossing legs
• Wear compression stockings
b. Venous insufficiency
Pathophysiology
• Valves and legs are damaged due to prolong venous HTN Our previous blood clot
Risk factors:
• Sitting/standing in one position for a long period of time
• Obesity
• Pregnancy
• Thrombophlebitis
Clinical manifestations:
• Status dermatitis(brown discoloration along ankles)
• Edema
• Stasis ulcers around ankles
Labs/DX
• D-dimer ↑ = clot breakdown evidence, detects clot
Nursing interventions:
Elevate legs to increase venous return (20 mins, 4-5/day), position: legs above heart, “Elevate Veins”, Apply stockings, and monitor for cellulitis
Patient education: avoid sitting/standing still for too long, change positions often, avoid crossing legs, tight clothing. Apply stockings before getting out of bed in the morning
Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD) : affects blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart; artery carries blood away from heart but has difficulty going down to extremities.
Pathophysiology
• Atherosclerosis in lower extremities → decreased blood flow to tissues.
Risk Factors
• Smoking, DM, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, obesity, age, sedentary lifestyle.
Clinical Manifestations
• Intermittent claudication: leg pain with exercise, relieved by rest; not enough oxygen makes the tissue suffer = pain; ischemia
• Pain(sharp) that is only relieved when resting in dependent position
• Cool, pale, cyanotic skin
• Loss of hair on legs, thick toenails
• Weak/absent pedal pulses; dorsalis pedis; Doppler(verify), +1
• Numbness, burning at night
• No blood and no edema due to an adequate blood flow
• Note: think “A” in PAD as Antarctica, where it’s cold! For cold, pale skin!
Diagnostics
• ⭐️ABI < 0.9 = PAD; ankle pressure compared to break your pressure; expected finding is 0.9–1.3; less than is PAD
• ⭐️Arteriography for visualization of occlusion/decreased arterial flow with contrast injection on a x-ray. Monitor for bleeding, hemorrhage, marked, pedal pulses
• Doppler studies → decreased flow in DM patients
• ⭐️Exercise tolerance testing → decreased pressure in lower limbs, read the workload of the heart/circulation, and clarification during exercise. May use treadmill or meds (dipyridamole, adenosine). Finding of a BP/pulse waveform = arterial disease. Monitor vitals before, during, and after. Stop test if chest pain or symptoms are severe.
Nursing Interventions
• Encourage graded exercise until pain, rest, repeat
• Avoid elevating legs above heart (impairs flow)
• Avoid cold, caffeine, nicotine, tight clothing
• Keep extremities warm (no heating pad), they can’t feel
• Foot care: inspect daily, no bare feet, toenails straight
Medications
• Antiplatelets: (aspirin, clopidogrel) reduces blood viscosity and increases blood flow and extremities. Monitor: bleeding, abdominal pain, black, tarry stools.
• Statins: (atorvastatin, simvastatin). Relieved manifestations like intermittent claudication.
• Pentoxifylline: improves RBC flexibility (claudication). Monitor for bleeding, abdominal pain, black tarry stools.
Procedures
• Angioplasty (balloon/stent). Opens and helps, maintain the patency of the vessel, however, laser vaporizes atherosclerosis plaque. Monitor for bleeding, vital signs, pulses, cap Refill. As patients rest limbs are straight for 2-6 hrs before ambulation. Anticoagulant/Antiplatelet therapy given 1-3 months after.
• Atherectomy rotation, device removes, arterial plaque. Monitor for bleeding and distal pulses. rest limbs are straight for 2-6 hrs. Anticoagulant/Antiplatelet therapy given 1-3 months after.
• Arterial revascularization bypass surgery
• Used for clients at risk for losing a limb, severe claudication, or limb pain at rest. It reroutes the circulation around the arterial occlusion.
• Post-op: ⭐️ maintain adequate circulation in repaired artery, mark pedal/dorsalis pulses(compare both), monitor color/temp, pain, cap refill, blood pressure (HTN= risk for bleeding; Hypotension=clot risk).
• Complications: for these notify provider first
-graft occlusion: acute blockage of bypass graft within 24 hr(absent pulse, cold foot, increased pain)
-compartment syndrome: tissue pressure restricting blood flow; causing ischemia (numbness, tingling, edema, worsening/passive pain)
-infection: infection of site (warm, tenderness, elevated, WBC, purulent drainage, use sterile technique)
Patient Education
• Walk until pain → rest → walk more
• Stop smoking
• Avoid crossing legs
• Diet low in cholesterol and fat
Postoperative Care – Peripheral Bypass/Revascularization
Priorities
• Assess extremity: color, temperature, cap refill, sensation, pulses q15min ×1hr
• Mark pedal pulses before surgery
• Maintain adequate BP (avoid hypo or hypertension)
• Do not flex hip/knee excessively
• Encourage ambulation when ordered
• Report sudden pain, loss of pulse, pale/cool extremity = graft occlusion
Complications
• Graft occlusion, Compartment syndrome, Wound infection
Arterial vs. Venous Ulcers
Feature Arterial Ulcer Venous Ulcer
Location Toes, feet, lateral ankle Medial ankle
Appearance Pale, dry, round “punched out”, no drainage Irregular, leaky/moist, brown discoloration
Pain Severe, worse with elevation Achy, relieved with elevation
Skin Cool, shiny Warm, thickened
Treatment Improve arterial flow Compression therapy, elevate legs
Valvular Heart Disease OVERVIEW
Overview
• Stenosis = narrowed opening/thickening and hardening
• Regurgitation = backflow of blood
• Causes: rheumatic fever, degenerative calcification, endocarditis
Diagnostics
• Chest X-ray → chamber enlargement
• ⭐️ECG → hypertrophy
• Echo → valve dysfunction
• TEE → direct view of valves
⭐️ Medications overview
• Diuretics [furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, spironolactone]: reduce pulmonary congestion, by removing excessive extracellular fluid. Monitor: hypokalemia, eats foods high in potassium, and administer furosemide IV slowly over 1 – 2 minutes.
• Afterload–reducing agents [Beta-blockers (-lol); calcium channel blockers (-dipine); ACE inhibitors (-pril); angiotensin–receptor blockers (-artan); vasodilators (hydralazine]): control heart rate, by lessening resistance to contraction. Monitor: hypotension.
• Inotropic agents (digoxin): increases contractility, improves cardiac output. Hold medication if pulse rate (abnormal) is less than 60/min or greater than 100/min. Take medication same time every day, avoid combining with antacids (2hrs). Monitor: toxicity such as weakness, confusion, visual changes, low appetite.
• Anticoagulants: reduces risk of thrombus. Monitor: stroke, PT, INR, bleeding/bruising.
Procedures
• Valvuloplasty (balloon dilation)
• Valve replacement
• Mechanical = lifelong anticoagulants
• Tissue = replace every 7–10 years
Patient Education
• Prophylactic antibiotics before dental procedures
• Good oral hygiene
• Daily weights
• Sodium restriction
• Avoid caffeine/alcohol
• Report HF signs (weight gain, edema, SOB)
• Avoid alcohol, epinephrine, and ephedrine= can cause dysrhythmias
THE 4 VALVULAR DISORDERS
Mitral Stenosis
Etiology/Pathophysiology: Narrowed mitral valve obstructs blood flow from left atrium (LA) → left ventricle (LV), increasing LA pressure and pulmonary congestion → right-sided heart failure. Often caused by rheumatic fever.
Clinical Manifestations: Dyspnea on exertion, orthopnea, pitting edema, fatigue, palpitations, hemoptysis, apical diastolic murmur.
Risk Factors: Rheumatic heart disease, aging, congenital malformations.
Labs/Diagnostics: Echocardiogram (valve narrowing, pressure gradient), ECG (A-fib), chest X-ray (LA enlargement).
Medications/Management:
• Diuretics [furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, spironolactone]: reduce pulmonary congestion, by removing excessive extracellular fluid. Monitor: hypokalemia, eats foods high in potassium, and administer furosemide IV slowly over 1 – 2 minutes.
• Afterload–reducing agents [Beta-blockers (-lol); calcium channel blockers (-dipine): control heart rate, by lessening resistance to contraction. Monitor: hypotension.
• Anticoagulants: reduces risk of thrombus; prevent emboli from A-fib. Monitor: stroke, PT, INR, bleeding/bruising.
• Surgical: Balloon valvuloplasty or valve replacement.
NCLEX Tip: Rheumatic fever is the most common cause.
Mitral Insufficiency
Etiology/Pathophysiology: Incomplete closure of mitral valve causes blood to leak back into LA during systole → LV dilation and hypertrophy.
Clinical Manifestations: Fatigue, dyspnea, orthopnea, palpitations, holosystolic murmur at apex, pitting edema, S3 sounds
Risk Factors: Mitral valve prolapse, rheumatic disease, MI, endocarditis.
Labs/Diagnostics: Echocardiogram (regurgitant volume), ECG (A-fib), BNP (HF indicator).
Medications/Management:
• Beta-blockers (-lol); ACE inhibitors (-pril); ARBS/angiotensin–receptor blockers (-artan): reduce afterload /control heart rate, by lessening resistance to contraction. Monitor: hypotension.
• Diuretics [furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, spironolactone]: manage fluid overload. Monitor: hypokalemia, eats foods high in potassium, and administer furosemide IV slowly over 1 – 2 minutes.
• Anticoagulants if A-fib present; reduces risk of thrombus; prevent emboli from A-fib. Monitor: stroke, PT, INR, bleeding/bruising.
• Surgery for severe cases.
NCLEX Tip: Afterload reduction decreases regurgitant flow.
Aortic Stenosis
Etiology/Pathophysiology: Narrowed aortic valve → obstructed LV outflow → ↑ LV pressure → hypertrophy → ↓ cardiac output.
Clinical Manifestations: Triad: angina, syncope, dyspnea (heart failure); systolic murmur radiating to carotids.
Risk Factors: Aging (calcification), congenital bicuspid valve, rheumatic fever.
Labs/Diagnostics: Echocardiogram (valve area), ECG (LV hypertrophy), cardiac cath (pressure gradient).
Medications/Management:
• Avoid nitrates/vasodilators (can cause hypotension).
• Use beta-blockers (-lol) cautiously. reduce afterload /control heart rate, by lessening resistance to contraction. Monitor: hypotension.
• Surgical aortic valve replacement (definitive).
NCLEX Tip: Do not aggressively lower preload; maintain perfusion.
Aortic Insufficiency
Etiology/Pathophysiology: Incomplete closure of aortic valve → backflow of blood into LV → volume overload → dilation and LV hypertrophy.
Clinical Manifestations: Dyspnea, palpitations, fatigue, bounding (“water hammer”) pulse, wide pulse pressure, diastolic murmur.
Risk Factors: Rheumatic fever, endocarditis, Marfan syndrome, trauma.
Labs/Diagnostics: Echocardiogram (backflow volume), ECG (LV enlargement), chest X-ray (cardiomegaly).
Medications/Management:
• Calcium channel blockers (-dipine); ACE inhibitors (-pril); vasodilators (hydralazine]): reduce afterload /control heart rate, by lessening resistance to contraction. Monitor: hypotension.
• Diuretics for volume management.
• Surgical valve replacement when severe.
NCLEX Tip: Bounding pulse and wide pulse pressure are hallmark findings.
General Nursing & Exam Focus
• Best diagnostic test: Echocardiogram (for all).
• Monitor for A-fib in mitral disorders.
• Valve replacement (mechanical): Lifelong anticoagulation.
• Daily weights & fluid balance: Detect early HF.
• Positioning: High-Fowler’s for dyspnea, low-sodium diet.
Inflammatory Heart Disorders
(Endocarditis, Pericarditis, Myocarditis, Rheumatic Carditis)
Risk Factors
• IV drug use, valve replacement, streptococcal infection, immunosuppression, lower socioeconomic status
Pericarditis: inflammation of the pericardium (sac around heart)
-RF: heart attack, lupus, rheumatoid arthriti
-Clinical manifestations: Chest pain (relieved when leaning forward), coughing, Pericardial friction rub, fever, dysrhythmias, and SOB
-Labs/DX:
• High WBCs, EKG showing ST or T spiking, echocardiogram (inflamed heart)
-Nursing care/Intervention: address pain/inflammation, and monitor for cardiac tamponade, position, patient upright, leaning forward, and monitor ECG
- Medications: NSAIDs, corticosteroids, anti antibiotics for bacterial
• Ibuprofen/NSAIDs for inflammation (pericarditis). Avoid if patient has peptic ulcer, monitor for G.I. bleeding, platelets, liver/kidney function. Must be taken with food, avoid alcohol.
• Corticosteroids (prednisone) for autoimmune causes (pericarditis/myocarditis). Low-dose first, take with food, and patient must not stop abruptly. Monitor BP, glucose, electrolytes, wounds, infection, sudden weight gain.
-Complication: cardiac tamponade → muffled heart sounds, paradoxical pulse, JVD, hypotension (Beck’s triad)
Myocarditis: inflammation of the myocardium (heart muscle itself)
-RF: viral (covid, Coxsackie), fungal, or bacterial infection; autoimmune disorder
-Clinical Manifestations: Tachycardia, chest pain, murmur, friction rub, dysrhythmias, peripheral swelling, cardiomegaly.
-Labs/Dx: ECG, echocardiogram, high troponin, CK – MB, ESR in CRP for inflammation/injury
-Nursing Care/interventions: monitor for heart failure, and dysrhythmia’s, provide rest and activity restriction
-Medication:
• Amphotericin B for fungal infection (myocarditis/endocarditis). Monitor liver/kidney function for a G.I. upset.
• Corticosteroids (prednisone) for autoimmune causes (pericarditis/myocarditis). Low-dose first, take with food, and patient must not stop abruptly. Monitor BP, glucose, electrolytes, wounds, infection, sudden weight gain.
Endocarditis: bacterial infection that leaves inflammation of the endocardium (inner layer of the heart); bacterial or fungal Infection of endocardial tissues that leads to necrosis and embolization of growth
-RF: congenital/valvular heart disease, prosthetic valve, IV drug use
-Clinical Manifestations: janeway lesions, Fever, murmur, petechiae, splinter hemorrhages (red streaks under nail beds), Osler’s nodes
-labs/dx: positive blood culture, echocardiogram
-nursing interventions/care: administer IV antibiotics, antipyretics for fever, and anticoagulants, patient should use soft toothbrush, and prophylactic antibiotics before dental/invasive procedures
-medication:
• Penicillin for infection (rheumatic fever/endocarditis). Monitor for allergic reaction, kidney function/electrolytes.
• Amphotericin B for fungal infection (myocarditis/endocarditis). Monitor liver/kidney function for a G.I. upset.
Rheumatic Carditis/heart disease: infection of endocardium due to complication of rheumatic fever; GABHS triggers, rheumatic fever leading to inflammatory lesions in the heart
-RF: children, Follows untreated strep infection
-Clinical Manifestations: tachycardia, Fever, rash(trunk/extremities), joint pain, murmur, chest pain, muscle spasms, friction rub
-Labs/Dx: throat culture (strep infection), positive ASO titer, echocardiogram
-Nursing care/Interventions: administering antibiotics to stop strep infection, and promote rest, monitor for heart failure, and encourage life on prophylactic antibiotics.
-Medications: antibiotics, valve replacement/repair
• Penicillin for infection (rheumatic fever/endocarditis). Monitor for allergic reaction, kidney function/electrolytes.
Nursing Interventions (Overview for Inflammatory disorders)
• Monitor for tamponade & HF
• Administer antibiotics (penicillin)
• Pain relief (NSAIDs for pericarditis)
• Bed rest
• Emotional support
• Auscultate heart sounds; murmur or friction rub
• Collab with cardiologist and physical therapists
Procedures (Overview for Inflammatory disorders)
• Pericardiocentesis for fluid removal, then sent to laboratory; monitor for recurrence of cardiac tamponade. ( pericarditis.)
• Valve surgery if damaged
Complications (Overview for Inflammatory disorders)
• Cardiac tamponade: medical emergency resulted from fluid accumulation in pericardial sac. S/S: dyspnea, dizziness, tightness in chest, restlessness. Administer IV fluids, notify the provider, obtain chest, x-ray or ECG
Cardiac Diagnostics & Vascular Access (Ch. 28)
Transesophageal Echocardiography (TEE)
Provides clear heart images via probe in the esophagus to detect valve disease, thrombi, or heart failure.
NPO 4–6 hr, monitor VS, ECG, and sedation; check gag reflex before eating post-procedure; keep HOB 45°.
Stress Testing (Exercise or Pharmacologic)
Assesses heart’s response to stress for angina, HF, MI, or dysrhythmia.
NPO 2–4 hr, avoid caffeine/tobacco, wear comfortable clothes; stop test for chest pain, SOB, dizziness.
Post: monitor ECG & BP until stable.
Coronary Angiography (Cardiac Catheterization)
Identifies coronary artery blockages using contrast dye via femoral, radial, or brachial artery.
NPO 4–6 hr, assess renal function, allergies (iodine/shellfish), and hold metformin 48 hr before/after.
Post: monitor VS and site for bleeding, hematoma, or thrombosis, keep limb straight, maintain bedrest.
Complications: cardiac tamponade (↓BP, JVD, muffled heart sounds), embolism, hematoma, AKI—notify provider.
Teach: report chest pain, bleeding, SOB, avoid lifting >10 lb, and take antiplatelets as prescribed if stent placed.
Vascular Access Devices (VADs)
Provide reliable central access for fluids, meds, TPN, or blood. Verify tip placement via x-ray before use.
PICC: up to 12 mo use, insert in basilic/cephalic vein → SVC; no BP/venipuncture in that arm, keep dressing dry.
Tunneled Catheter: long-term use, subcutaneous tunnel prevents infection; no dressing once healed.
Implanted Port: long-term chemo access; access with Huber needle, flush with heparin after use.
Complications:
• Phlebitis: redness, pain, warmth—maintain sterile technique.
• Occlusion: flush gently with 10 mL syringe; never force.
• Mechanical issues: swelling or pain at port site = dislodgement → notify provider
15
