Studied by 5 peopleDevelopmental psych
The study of how individuals grow, change, and stay the same from conception to death.
Life stages in Development
Prenatal : Conception to birth
Newborn : Birth to 1 months
Infancy : 1 month to 1 year
Toddlerhood: 1 year to 2 years
Preschooler / Early childhood : 2-6 years
Middle Childhood : 6-11 years
Adolescence : 11 to 18 years
Early/Young Adult : 18-40 years
Middle adulthood : 40-65 years
Late/older adulthood : 65+ years
Death
Continuous development
Categorized by slow, gradual changes over time. Dependence on experience and children only improve in one specific area.
Discontinuous Development
Characterized by abrupt changes and believe that experience is gained once you pass a certain developmental phase. Development has predictable ordered stages and improving in one domain affects all domains.
Active or passive in development
Physical : mostly passive (set in place)
Cognitive : active
Environment : Before young adulthood, passive, after young adulthood, somewhat active.
Universal or Context Specific
Universal : Puberty, learning a language
Context : Language that is acquired, family environment, sociocultural influences.
Psychosexual theory of Development
Progress through stages which unconscious drives are focused on different parts of the body which stimulation is pleasurable. Each stage had Id Ego Superego conflict
Id
Primitive mind with sexual and aggressive desires
Ego
realistic part which mediates between the desires of the id and the morality of the super-ego.
super-ego
moral conscience
Oral Stage
(birth to 1 year)
Pure Id
Centered around the infants mouth
Conflict = too much (overfed) or too little (weaned early) oral stimulation.
Results in oral fixation later in life
Anal Stage
(1-3 years)
Infants start to get potty trained at this point
Parents place restrictions on when and where you can poop.
Leads to formation of the ego
Influenced interactions with authority figures and how clean and punctual they are.
Erikson Psychosocial Theory
Stage theory which required mastery of a stage to advance to the next and unsuccessful stages reappear as life problems.
Trust vs Mistrust
Birth to 1 year
Exestnetial question : Can I trust this world.
Infants are completely reliant on the caregiver. Need to learn that their needs will be met.
Success = acquire the virtue of hope
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
1-4 years
Existential Question : Is it okay to be me?
Toddlers start exploring their environment and need to feel like they can do their own and gain a sense of independence.
Balanced between restrictive and liberal parenting to teach autonomy but not lose sense of security.
Behaviorist/Learning Theories
Believes that only behavior can be observed and all behavior is influenced by the physical and social environment
Operant conditioning
Social learning theory
Social learning theory
Observation can teach children to imitate models therefore stimulus-response is not the only way to learn something
Reciprocal determinism
Individuals and the environment interact and influence each other.
Cognitive Theories
Children learn through cognitive/brain development
Jean Piaget
Founded cognitive-developmental perspective on child development
Learn by interacting with the world around them and organizing what’s learn into schemas, or concepts, ideas and ways of interacting with the world
Created developmental stage models
Jean Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Birth-2
Infants understand the world and think using only their sense and motor skills
Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
2-6 years
Preschoolers use their own thoughts to explore the world and develop language skills to communicate their thoughts to others.
Concrete operational
7-11 years
Able to solve everyday logic problems, thinking not fully mature and tied to tangible and specific problems
Jean Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage
12+
Use logical reasoning and abstract thought, able to imagine possibilities and hypothetical concepts.
Lev Vygotsky Sociocultural Systems Theory
Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next via social interaction
Zone of proximal development
Learning something new has to be challenging enough to engage the children but not too challenging that it’s outside of the child’s ability
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory
Development is a result of the ongoing interactions among biological, cognitive, and psychological changes within the person and his or her changing context.
Bronfenbrenner’s Microsystem
Immediate physical and social environment surrounding the person
Bronfenbrenner’s Mesosystem
The relations and interactions among microsystems
Bronfenbrenner’s Exosystem
Consists of settings in which the individual is not a participant but that nevertheless influences him or her.
Bronfenbrenner’s Macrosystem
The larger sociocultural context
Bronfenbrenner’s Chronosystem
Referring to all environmental changes that occur over the life time which influences development.
Includes timing of events like major life transitions and historical events.
Ethological and Evolutionary Developmental Theories
Applies principles and evolution and scientific knowledge about the interactive influence of genetics and environmental mechanism to understand changes people undergo throughout their lifetime.
Ethological and Evolutionary Developmental Example
Before, our species dealt with sugar and food scarcity which made us seek out and enjoy sugary and calorically high foods, but now since we have abundant food and don’t use as much caloric energy so our evolutionary behavior for those foods is less optimal but still there for that old necessity.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
after this, therefore, because of this
Texas sharpshooter fallacy
Finding patterns that aren’t really there because the data is relatively similar.
Hawthorne Effect
Control groups can experience changes in the outcome because they know it’s a study
Placebo Effect
Even though the control group doesn’t receive the treatment, they can still experience changes because they think they are.
Order effects
Exposure to earlier trials can influence results of current/future trials.
Double Hermeneutic
Social sciences
People are able to take that information and apply it to their own lives, thus changing their behavior.
Single Hermeneutic --- Natural Sciences
The thing being studied cannot use research findings of that natural thing to change their behavior (ex. an atom can’t use chemistry findings to change their behavior)
Incomplete dominance
Both genes influence the trait
Polygenic inheritance
most rtaits are the result of the interaction of many genes
Genomic imprinting
Gene expression is determined by whether it is inherited by the mother or the father.
Huntington’s disease
Genetic condition
Brain cells die as a result of abnormal proteins.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Genetic condition
Buildup of phenylalanine due to an inability to process it
Recessive disorder that occurs when both parents are carriers
Fragile X-syndrome
Dominant recessive genetic disorder carried on X chromosomes, effecting males more severely.
Colorblindness
Genetic condition linked which is sex chromosome-linked which leads to different perception of color.
Behavior genetics
Study how genes and experiences combine to influence the diversity of human traits, abilities, and behavior.
Heritability
the extent to which there is variation among people on a given characteristic is due to genetic differences.
Selective breeding studies
Deliberately modify the genetic makeup of animals to examine the influence of heredity on attributes and behaviors.
Twin adoption studies
Another genetic behavior study types which looks at the effect of environment while genes are held constant (since monozygotic twins share 100% genes)
Passive gene-environment interaction
parents (who share genes) create an environment that already fits with the genotype to a large extent.
Evocative / Reactive gene-environment interactions
Environment reacts to your traits
No influence over evocative.
Active gene-environment interactions
You seek out environments that correspond to your traits.
Reaction range
Wide range of potential expressions of a genetic trait, depending on environmental opportunities and constraints
Ex. genotypes for intelligence are impacted by an impoverished or enriched environment
Canalization
A measure of the ability of a population to produce the same phenotype regardless of variability of its environment or genotype.
Conception
Temperature gradients in the female reproductive system guides sperm towards the ovum while the sperm tracks the egg. Ovum exudes chemical signals to draw sperm closer. Sperm head releases enzymes to penetrate the protective layer of the ovum. Genetic contents merge.
Zygote
Fertilized cell egg from egg and sperm meeting.
At the moment of conception a zygote is formed
Pregnancy beginning
once the embryo implants into the uterus, pregnancy begins.
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
hormone released after implantation that sends signals to the body to stop the mensuration cycle
pregnancy tests look for hCG hormone
Germinal period
Zygote begins cell division and travels down fallopian tube to the uterus
Embryonic period
week 2-8
most rapid developments of the prenatal period takes place.
Week 9 till birth
Fetus grows rapidly and organs become more complex and begin to function
Brain formation
Day 21
Primitive neural tissue occupies the outermost layers of the embryonic cell.
neural plate dols to form neural grove, grove curls to form neural tube, anterior neural fold closes to form the brain.
Ectoderm
Embryonic disk upper layer which will become the skin, nail, hair, teeth, sensory organs, and the nervous system.
Endoderm
Embryonic disk lower layer which will become the digestive system, liver, lungs, pancreas, salivary gland, and respiratory system.
Mesoderm
Embryonic disk middle layer which forms later and will become muscles, skeleton, circulatory system and internal organs.
Teratogens
Agents that influence the prenatal environment to disrupt birth
Includes disease, drugs, and environmental factors
Within first week no susceptibility to teratogens since if there are any the body will spontaneously abort due to too much damage early on.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Due to alcohol exposure in pregnancy, varies with timing and amount of exposure.
Results in distinct pattern of facial features, growth deficits, deficits in intellectual development (planning, attention, problem solving, etc).
Facial anomalies in fetal alcohol syndrome
flatter nose bridge, thin top lip, natural bumps between lip and nose are gone, eyes might be spaced more apart.
Diet
inadequate consumption of vitamins, minerals and other nutrients can cause birth defects.
Stress
Chronic and severe stress during pregnancy can result in low birth weight, premature birth, and a weakened immune system
Mother’s age
Greater risk for pregnancy and birth complications, more vulnerable to pregnancy-related illnesses, and are more likely to give birth to a child with Down syndrome.
Rhesus incompatibility
Mother’s immune system begins to attack the fetus because the fetus has the blood group antigen Rh and the mother doesn’t
Ultrasounds
High frequency sound waves
Non-invasive, no threat to mother or child.
Amniocentesis
Can be performed at 16 weeks
Sample of fetal cells is extracted from the fluid in the amniotic sac
Used when there’s an abnormal ultrasound, history of certain disease in the family, mother previously gave birth to child with birth defects. Down-syndrome, sickle cell, cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy.
Chronic Villus Samping
Can be performed at (10-13 weeks)
Fetal cells are extracted from the placenta
Used when there’s an abnormal ultrasound, history of certain disease in the family, mother previously gave birth to child with birth defects. Down-syndrome, sickle cell, cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy
C-section
Use of surgery to deliver the baby
Often used in emergencies like obstructed labor, breech birth, more than one baby, mother high blood pressure, problems with placental/umbilical cord.
Dialation (stage 1)
Stage 1 and longest stage of childbirth
Mechanical stimulation of the cervix by descending fetal head activates sensory nerve endings, oxytocin is secreted into blood to cause contractions.
Early phase of dilation
0-4 cm in dialation, contractions occur approximately 15-20 minutes apart, last on average 6-12 hours)
Active phase of dilation
4-10 in dilation, contractions occur every 2-3 minutes, last on average 4-8 hours.
Transition phase of dilation
Last part, very intense frequent contractions
Delivery (stage 2)
Mother get’s intense urge to push
Baby head crowns (visible in opening)
Once head is out, baby is rotated to make the shoulders easier to emerge.
Episiotomy
Small incision is made in the vagina to prevent greater tearing that could occur during childbirth.
Delivery of the Afterbirth (stage 3)
further contractions separate the placenta from the uterine wall
Can take up to an hour for these contractions to expel the placenta from the uterus via the birth canal.
Hypoxia
Birth complication of lack of oxygen
Umbilical cord pinched close or wrapped around the baby’s neck
Baby’s lungs might not be working properly
Premature birth
Any birth before 37 weeks
Baby is still developing in preparation for life on outside
Cause include infection, problem with placenta, structural abnormalities of the uterus/cervix, complications due to other abdominal surgeries
Low birth weight
Can develop normally with supportive care
Causes include premature birth, disruption of blood flow during pregnancy (maternal high blood pressure or pre-eclampsia), and more than one baby.
APGAR scale
Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration
Need a score of 7 to 10 or high to mean the baby is doing well.
Baby health comparatively
Information given in percentiles
If your child’s weight is at the 65th percentile, it means she/he weighs the same or more than 65% of all other babies his/her age.
If percentile extremely jumps up or down it’s of concern.
Vision newborn
Vision is poor shortly after birth but develops rapidly
High-contrast images
Can only see 4-30” away
Different visual environments effect development (ex. strobe lights, horizontal eyes, one eye covered.)
Taste and smell in newborns
developed at birth
Hearing in new borns
An infants best sense
Startled easily by loud noises
Orient their heads towards sounds.
Newborns activity
Sleep 16-20 hours a day
50% of sleep is REM
Newborns = more sensory information goes in requires more processing during sleep.
Cephalocaudal development
One infant growth pattern, growth proceeds from the head downward.
Proximodistal development
Second infant growth pattern, growth and development proceed from the center of the body outward.
Newborn weight fluctuation
Newborns shed 5-10% of their body weight a few days after birth but gain it back within 2-3 weeks
Newborn Size
Double birth weight by 5 months — triple by 12 months.
gain 30 cm during first year
size can differ by heredity
environment factors like nutrition, sea level, and ethnicity can effect it
Breastfeeding
the best way to ensure babies get proper nutrients, including antibodies which can strengthen immune system.
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