Pathology Exam 3

chambers of heart

chambers of heart

right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle

valves of heart

tricuspid, mitral, pulmonary semilunar, aortic semiulnar

coronary vessels

right coronary artery, left coronary artery

right coronary artery

posterior descending artery, right marginal artery

left coronary artery

left anterior descending artery, left circumflex artery

layers of heart

pericardium, myocardium, ednocardium

pericardium

fibrous layer, parietal layer, cavity, visceral layer

myocardium

heart muscle

endocardium

inner layer

congenital heart defect

genetic, mostly idiopathic, detected prenatally

malrotation defects

misplacement of a vessel

expansion defects

hypoplastic chambers or vessels

spetal defects

direct connection between atria or ventricles

cardiac shunt

blood flow deviates from the normal pattern

cardiac obstruction

occurs when embryonic vessels fail to expand properly

cyanotic

blood shunts from right to left side of the heart

acyanotic

blood shunts from left to right side of heart

hypoplastic left hear syndrome (HLHS)

underdevelopment of the structures of the left side of the heart

tetralogy of fallot

ventricular septal defect, pulmonary stenosis, overriding aorta, hypertrophy of the right ventricle

ventricular septal defects (VSD)

opening in ventricular septum, blood from the left ventricle flow to the right ventricle

atrial septal defects (ASD)

opening between the atria

patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)

opening connecting fetal pulmonary artery to aorta doesn’t close

coronary artery disease (CAD)

ASHD or IHD, lipid deposits form in medium and large coronary arteries

stable plaque

thick fibrous cap protects lipid core of plaque from contact with blood

myocardial ischemia

oxygen demand greater than oxygen supply, chest pain

angina pectoris

pressure, heaviness, tightness in the middle of the chest or around shoulder/arm/throat/jaw

myocardial infarction

heart attack, thrombus forms in coronary artery

zone of infarction

dead/necrotic cells

zone of hypoxic injury

middle layer

zone of ischemia

outermost layer

transmural infarction

necrotic area extends through entire heart wall

subendocardial infarction

necrosis limited to innermost heart layers

heart failure

incapable of maintaining cardiac output

systolic heart failure

weak ventricle does not pump much blood

diastolic heart failure

stiff, non-compliant ventricle does not fill adequately

valvular hear disease

damage to 1 or more valves from congenital defects, infection, other diseases

stenosis

valve does not fully open due to scars, calcification, or other damage

insufficiency

valve does not fully close; blood regurgitates back into heart chamber where it was pumped from

prolapse

valve bulges back into chamber

cardiomyopathy

collection of diverse conditions of the heart muscles

acute infections

result in inflammation of heart muscle

myocarditis

inflammation of heart muscle

rheumatic heart disease (RHD)

immune inflammatory reaction, valves are damaged

streptococci primary infections

skin, pharynx, lungs, and heart valves

streptococci secondary infections

sepsis, meningitis, bacterial endocarditis

noninfectious consequences of streptococci

scarlet fever, rheumatic fever, glomerulonephritis

manifestations of streptococci

murmur, heart failure, polyarthritis

infective endocarditis

direct bacterial infection of heart wall

manifestation of infective endocarditis

fever, leukocytosis, murmur, heart failure, emboli

covid-19 infection

virus enters heart cell by binding to a specific receptor on myocardial cell surface

cardiac complications of covid-19

myocarditis, destabilized & vulnerable plaque leading to MI, heart failure, arrhythmias, thromboembolism

cytokine storm

excessive, uncontrolled immune response

pericarditis

inflammation of pericardiump

pericardial effusion

fluid accumulation around heart

manifestations of pericarditis

pain, heart failure, cardiac tamponade

cardiac tamponade

compression of heart

endocrine system

series of glands and organs that produce and secrete hormones

hormones

chemical messengers of body

pancreas as exocrine organ

secretes pancreatic juice into ducts

pancreas as endocrine organ

secrete pancreatic hormones directly into blood

islets of longerhans

basic unit of pancreas

alpha cells

secrete glucagon

glucagon

stimulates liver output of glucose by converting glycogen to glucose and forming glucose from amino acids

beta cells

secrete insulin

insulin

stimulates cell uptake of glucose from blood

acute pancreatitis

acute, reversible inflammation

etiology of acute pancreatitis

alcohol abuse, gallstones, idiopathic, viral infections

signs and symptoms of acute pancreatitis

severe abdominal pain radiating through back

diagnosis of acute pancreatitis

increased amylase and lipase in blood

chronic pancreatitis

repeated episodes of acute pancreatitis

etiology of chronic pancreatitis

alcohol abuse, gallstone, cystic fibrosis

signs and symptoms of chronic pancreatitis

milder, upper abdominal pain radiating through bach

diabetes mellitus

diabetes

diabetes

disorder of insulin action or secretion

etiology of type I diabetes

autoimune disorders

type I diabetes

destruction of islets of langerhans and absolute lack of insulin

etiology of type II diabetes

multifactorial disease

type II diabetes

peripheral cell resistance to the effect of insulin and inadequate secretory response

type I diabetes (cells)

destruction of beta cells

type II diabetes (cells)

beta cells dysfunction

prediabetes

high blood levels of insulin and high-normal fasting blood glucose levels

secondary type II diabetes

pregnancy, drug therapy, endocrine diseases

short term complications of diabetes

diabetic ketoacidosisl

diabetic nephropathy

most common cause of renal failure in the US

diabetic retinopathy

mixture of exudates, hemorrhages, small aneurysms, scarring

diabetic neuropathy

nerve irritation, pain, abnormal sensation

anterior pituitary hormones

adrenocorticotrophic hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, growth hormone, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone

posterior pituitary hormone

antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin

thyroxine

T4

triiodothyronine

T3

euthyroid

normal blood levels of T4 and T3

hyperthyroid

high thyroid hormone levels

hypothyroid

low thyroid hormone levels

adrenal cortex

under control of pituitary gland, secrets corticosteroids

adrenal medulla

linked directly to and controlled by the autonomic nervous system; secretes catecholamines

aldosterone

act on kidney to retain sodium and water, secrete potassium

cortisol

increase glucose production; suppress immune reaction; limit inflammation to lessen the stress of injury

sex steriods

estrogens and androgens

epinephrine and norepinephrine

increase heart rate, dilates bronchioles and coronary arteries, constrict peripheral blood vessels

parathyroid glands

4 glands, blood calcium controls output of parathyroid hormone