bio 2 final exam

functions of circulatory system

Transporting nutrients, gases, hormones to cells and tissues of the body; transport waste materials away from cells and tissues of the body

where does transport occur

in blood which is a special connective tissue

make up of blood

plasma -55%

water- 90%

gases, glucose, hormones, waste, AA, nucleotide- 10%

blood

intracellular fluid: fluid within cells, extracellular fluid: fluid outside cells and plasma and interstitial fluid-between cells and tissues, formed elements are cells that make up 45% blood volume

platelets

cause clotting of blood

leukocytes

white blood cells, nucleated, 7000/cc

what are the five types of leukocytes and their functions

neutrophils: first to inflammation, phagocytes, eat cells

lymphocytes: b cells in bone marrow, t cells in thymus, attack virus

monocytes: eat cells

eosinophils: limit inflammation, protect against parasite and worms

basophils: help inflammation response, regulate blood vessel flow

erythrocytes

red blood cells, anucleate in mammals, oxygen transport, produced in red marrow and spleen, 120 day life span, contain hemoglobin, biconcave, without nucleus can have more hemoglobin and more O2 but no more hemoglobin than if had nucleus

blood vessels

tubes carrying blood, lined by simple squamous epithelium

arteries and arterioles

carry away from the heart, smooth muscle layer is thicker than veins

capillaries

smallest diameter, arranged in cluster or beds, thin walled- one cell thick, more efficient for secretion/absorbtion/diffusion, gas exchange between blood or organs, tissues in body, O2 and CO2 diffuse through single cell layer

veins and venulues

carry blood toward heart, thinner and smooth muscle layer, lower pressure vessels- pumping is hard, some with valves to prevent backflow of blood, lined with simple squamous- epithelium

heart anatomy

mammals have 4 chambers, 2 atrium: smaller with thinner walls, 2 ventricles: larger and thicker walls with left being thickest

right side of heart

conducts blood to lungs for gas exchange and back to heart, pulmonary circuit or loop

left side of heart

conducts blood out to body and back to heart, systematic circuit

atrioventricular valves

between right atrium & right ventricle and left atrium & left ventricle, looks like shoots/slides

semilunar valves

pulmonary SV is between right ventricle and pulmonary artery trunk

aortic SV between left ventricle and aortic trunk

evolutionary advances of vertebrate heart

increase in number of chamber, increase in size of heart, decrease in in number of pseudochambers

pseudochambers

sinus venous- outside atrium and receive blood from body

conus arteriousus- outside ventricle receive blood from heart

sinoatrial node

remnant of sinus venousus of earlier vertebrates, it is a patch of cells in right atrium, nodal tissue is specialized cardiac muscle cells that are capable of spontaneous contraction

conus arteriousus

becomes beginning of aortic trunk

respiratory system

O2 and CO2 diffuses in different directions and will diffuse with concentration gradient (high to low), stretch of epithelial tissues as membrane for diffusion, O2 diffuses into and CO2 diffuses out of

gas exchange

process of moving CO2 and O2 in opposite directions between the environment, bodily fluids and cells, oxygen diffuses through the simple epithelium layer into blood and attached to hemoglobin, blood delivered to respiratory organ is low in O2 so O2 diffuses in then goes to body, CO2 diffuses into blood all throughout the body with O2 diffusing out

where is the only place the O2 will diffuse

only in respiratory organs

respiratory system

all structure that contribute to this process

solubility

gases dissolve in water (fresh, sea, bodily fluids), most gasses dissolve poorly in water

factors influencing solubility in water

pressure of gas: as pressure increases more gas in solution up to a limit for each gas at a given temperature

temperature of water: cold water has more gas than warm water

presence of other solutes: other solutes decrease amount of gas that dissolves into solution

ventilation

process of bringing oxygen water or air into contact with gas exchange organ

what four factors must happen for ventilation to occur

moist surfaces of which gases dissolve and diffuse, higher surface area for gas exchange, extensive blood supply in capillaries, thin delicate surface aka simple epithelium

aquatic animals challenge for gas exchange

less available oxygen, temperature changes in water aka oxygen available changes, moving dense water over respiratory membranes, removes heat from gill surface, takes more energy than moving air

terrestrial animals challenge for gas exchange

deal with dessication of respiratory membranes

gills

in fish some amphibians and some invertebrates, design must be efficient and effective, specialized respiratory structures in water breathing, low oxygen concentration in water

external gills

unconvered extensions from body surface, many invertebrates and larval form of amphibians, vary in appearance but have large surface area with extensive projections

limits of gills

unprotected and subject to damage, energy needed to move gills back and forth, appearance and motion attract predators

internal gills

gills of fish with a cover called operculum, gill arch is main support structure containing filaments with lamellae, blood vessels run length of filaments, counter current exchange of water and blood flow, water oxygen concentration of both O2 and CO2 due to concentration gradient

buccal pumping

hydrostatic pressure gradient created by lowering jaw for water to rush in and open operculum to draw water through, flap of tissue prevent fish from swallow water

ramvent

swim with mouth open, more energy efficient

counter current exchange

oxygen and CO2 diffuse as long as there is a gradient of O2 and CO2, blood and water, diffusion occurs a long entire length of gill region, highly efficient in water with only energy expended in swim and or open mouth and operculum

cutaneous respiration

gas exchange through the integument, highly efficent, some fish and some amphibians, both have thin and moist skin with lots of capillaries, no barriers to diffusion, 90% gas exchange in salamanders

buccopharyngeal respiration

epithelial lining of mouth cavity, moist and thin and lots of capillaries, some amphibians

lungs

few exceptions all air breathing terrestrial vertebrates use this for gas exchange, fish: lung fish, amphibians: simple sacs, reptiles and birds: larger space and lobes for more exchange area, mammals: largest of vertebrates with more exchange area, like a sponge when compressed go out and when released like vacuum taking in

external nares

nose and mouth, air is warmed and moistened, mucus and hair in nose cleans air of dust

internal nares

pharynx, back of mouth cavity, respiratory and digestive tracts cross, ventral side

larynx

voicebox, upper part of trachea, vocal chords

trachea

largest, opening is glottis, rings of cartilage give rigidity, lined with cillia and mucus secreting epithelium used to trap and expel inhealed particles, branches into bronchi

bronchi

repeated branching of bronchi eventually forms bronchioles, circular rings of smooth muscle to dilate or constrict passage, bronchioles empty into alveoli aka site of gas exchange, exhaled air follows pathway in reverse, single layer epithelium surrounded by capillaries

diaphragm

large muscular organ separating thoracic and abdominal cavities, smooth muscle, densely and closely packed smooth muscle, lowers during inhalation to expand the thoracic cavity, during exhalation returns to normal to help expel air, the more air sacs the more potential for gas exchange

urinary system

maintains homeostasis of ions and water, was disposal for ions and urinary wastes, filtering blood,water movement or redistribution by osmosis,

osmoregulation

regulation of ions and water balance of body fluids

nephron

functional unit of kidney and clean blood and produce waste

urinary system in animals

make use of one or more organs to remove metabolic wastes and excess water and ions and toxins, most organs contain tubular structures line with simple cuboidal epithelium that have capacity to actively transport ions, critical for removing wastefrom body fluids and maintaining homeostasis

salt and water balance

salt is a compound from when positive and negative ion, bond is broken in water, changes in concentrations of ions from dissolved slats in extracellular and intracellular fluids disrupt cellular function

principles of homeostasis of internal fluids

animals internal fluids exist in compartments and invertebrates have only intracellular fluid and vertebrates have intra and extracellular fluid, dehydration occurs when water volume is reduced below the normal range, compromises the circulatory systems and regulation of body temperature, water is really important in regulation

water is what in internal fluids

major portion of animal’s body mass, solvent for chemical reactions, transport vehicle and what’s in the water flows with it

gains of water in humans

drinking- 48%, free water in food- 40%, metabolic water- 12%

losses of water in humans

urine-60%, evaporation- 34%, feces- 6%

nitrogenous waste

produced when proteins and nucleicacis are broken down and metabolized molecules include nitrogen from amino group, toxic at high concentrations and can’t be eliminated from body through exhalation or diffusion, filtering and cleaning blood gets rid of this

forms of nitrogenous waste

ammonia, urea, and uric acid

ammonia

most toxic of nitrogenous waste, excrete these in water, easily diffuses in water, aquatic animals excrete as soon as forms, main advantages is that energy not required for conversion to less toxic product

urea

all mammals and most amphibians and some marine fish and some reptiles and some terrestrial invertebrates, produced by metabolic conversion of NH3, less toxic, doesn’t need as much volume water for excretion, can tolerate some accumulation, drawback is takes energy to convert NH3 to this and time

uric acid

only birds and insects and most reptiles, less toxic than ammonium, more energetically costly to make from ammonium than urea and more time, balanced against water conserved by excreting, semisolid and partially dried precipitate, buildup cause joint issues, very little water required to excrete

kidneys

major organ of urinary system, vertebrates they are paired organs, fish and amphibians are simple sacs, mammals and birds and reptiles have metanephric organs, drained by ureter, lots of nephrons, filter at higher pressures

organs in urinary system

kidney- forms urine from blood

ureter- transport urine to bladder

bladder- store urine until excreted

urethra- carry urine out of body during urination

nephron

functional unit of kidney, urine forming unit, around 1 million per kidney, total blood volume around 5 L, composed of renal corpuscle and renal tubule

renal corpuscle

glomerulus: capillary bed, blood filtered here, filtered material = glomerular filtrate (GF)

bowman’s capsule: blind ended pouch, only opening attach to tube, receieved GF from glomerulus

renal tubule

proximal tubule: receive GF from bowman’s and primary reabsorbs then 60% back to blood

lower loop: extension, most enhanced in mammal, water by osmosis, reabsorb

distal tubule: primary secretion, blood to tube, push and maximize waste in tube

collecting duct not part of it because it entities into duct, more water absorbed

tubular reabsorption: movement of GF out of tubule to blood and occurs a long length of tubule and takes from low to high concentration and require ATP and require active transport

for most substances upper limit, except glucose

3 stages of urine formation

filtration: glomerulus/bowman’s capsule

reabsorption: proximal tubule and want start as early as possible

secretion: distal tubule and waste material pushed back

goal is remove waste and save goodies and conserve water

freshwater fish nephron

concentrartion of environment ion less than concentration of body ions, constant water intake, large glomerulus, dilate waste - ammonia, dont drink water, short tubule to absorb goodies, concentration of water in the environment is greater than in the body

saltwater fish nephron

concentration of environmental ions are greater than body ions, constant loss of water, store ions in tissues, long tubule so reabsorb more ions, drink salt water so want ions, small glomerulus, concentrated waste is urea, concentration of water in environment is less than in body

mammal nephron

loop of Henle: lower loop that is greatly constricted and slows down GF, more water absorbed, more goodie absorbed, more concentration of wastes around 20 x, waste product is urea

pitutary gland and hypothalumus

anterior pituatary: secrete hormones that act on other endocrine glands, thryotropic, gonadtropin, prolactin, growth hormone, melanophore, adrenocotrico

posterior pituitary: regulated by hypothalamus, vasopressin, oxytocin

hypothalamus: produces releasing hormone that regulate pituitary gland, LHRH, FSHRH

thryotropic hormone

acts on thyroid

gonadotropin

act on gonads with LH and FSH

prolactin

stimulate milk production

growth hormone

stimulate cell division

melanophore

adrenocotrico hormone

act on adrenal glands

vasopressin hormone

act on kidney to reduce urine flow

oxytocin hormone

uterus contraction during birth and milk release

LHRH

lutenizing hormone releasing hormone

FSHRH

follicle stimulating hormone releasing hormone

metabloic hormones and glands

alter enzyme activity, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, cortisol, aldosterone, epinephrine, norepinephrine

cortisol

antiinflammaotry hormone

aldosterone

tube reabsoptions of NaCl of nephron

epinephrine

adrenaline and higher excited state of body

norepinephrine

noradrenaline, bring down from excited state

digestive hormones

gastrin, chlocytokinin, both needed to break down fats and lipids

gastrin

stimulate HCl secretion in stomach

chloecytokinin

gall bladder contracts to increase bile flow to duodenum and pancreases to secrete enzymatic juices

asexual reproduction

offspring are produced from a single parent and are clones of parent, three major forms of budding and regeneration/fragmentation and fission

budding

portion of parent pinches off to form completely new individual

regeneration/fragmentation

complete organism formed from a afragment of parent’s body

fission

parent divide mitptically into 2 nearly equal parts

sexual reproduction

two haploid gametes fuse to produce a new individual, offspring genetically different from both parents, most animals produce this way, energy expensive especially for female, fertilization is union of haploid egg and sperm to produce diploid zygote, zygote undergo many cell divisions to develop into multicellular embryo

advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction

one parent, no gametes, no reproductive organs, simple way to produce many copies of individual, result of cytokinesis and mitosis, reproduce if isolated, reproduce rapid and at any time, energy cheap, minimal time, no mate finding, in species from stable environments with lots of resources with little selection pressure for genetic diversity

advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction

two types of gametes must be made, male and female require specialized body parts and find each other to mate, require lots of time and energy and sexual maturity, allows for greater genetic variation due to genetic recombination, may allow rapid adaption to environmental changes, differential survival~ more offspring that can survive and those that survive have chance to reproduce

types of sexual reproduction

hermaphroditism, parthenogenesis, biparental reproduction

hermphroditism

individuals have both male and female reproductive systems, individual capable of producing offspring, monoecious is the condition where both sex organs in same individual, sexual reversal on occassion, most exhibit cross fertilization because self fertilization is uncommon

parthenogenesis

development of embryo from unfertilized egg, no fusion, sperm may or may not be involved in intitation of development, ameiotic~ no meiosis and egg forms by mitosis, meiotic~ egg forms by meiosis and develops without fusing with sperm, described in vertebrate animals, extreme conditions usually

biparental reproduction

takes two genetically different individuals, two types of sex organs producing two types of gametes, dioecious~ condition of separate sexed individuals