AP Psychology Unit 2

Selective Attention

Focusing awareness on a particular stimuli.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to see visible objects while attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

A type of inattentional blindness where individuals fail to notice environmental changes.

Perceptual Set

Predisposition to perceive certain things based on emotions, motivation, and context.

Gestalt

German word meaning “organized,” denoting how sensory pieces are integrated into a whole.

Figure-Ground

Term denoting the way that the visual field is organized into objects and background.

Grouping

Perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

Proximity

Grouping tendency based on distance between things.

Similarity

Grouping tendency based on how alike things are.

Closure

Grouping tendency based on how different figures form a whole.

Depth Perception

The human ability to perceive depth based on 2D perception.

Visual Cliff

Laboratory device for testing depth perception.

Binocular Cues

Cues based on both eyes to aid in visual perception.

Convergence

Binocular cue to a nearby object’s distance based on the combined images of both eyes when eyes turn inward.

Retinal Disparity

Binocular cue based on the fact that eyes are on different locations of the head which allows for a 3D view.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues based on each eye’s individual perception.

Stroboscopic Movement

Apparent motion based on the illusion of continuous movement when varying still images are viewed.

Phi Phenomenon

Apparent motion based on the illusion of movement when 2+ adjacent lights blink on/off.

Autokinetic Effect

Effect where illusory movement of a spot is perceived in a dark room.

Perceptual Constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging even when illumination changes.

Relative Luminance

The amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings.

Perceptual Adaptation

The ability to adjust to changed sensory input.

Relative Size

Monocular cue based on the fact that as objects are farther away they appear smaller.

Linear Perspective

Depth cue based on the convergence of parallel lines into a vanishing point.

Texture Gradient

Monocular cue based on the fact that the texture of closer objects is more clear.

Interposition

Monocular cue based on the way that various objects block each other.

Motion Parallax

Monocular cue based on how closer objects appear to move faster than distant ones.

Cognition

All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Metacognition

Cognition about cognition: the evaluation of mental processes.

Concepts

Mental groupings of alike things.

Prototype

A mental image/best example of a certain category.

Schemas

Term created by Jean Piaget of concepts/mental molds.

Assimilation

Process of interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

Accommodation

Process of adapting schemas to incorporate new information.

Creativity

The ability to produce new and valuable solutions.

Convergent Thinking

Thinking that narrows down multiple ideas into one.

Divergent Thinking

Thinking that allows for the creation of new ideas–brainstorming.

Executive Functions

Cognitive skills that enable the generation, organization, planning, and implementation of goal-driven behavior.

Algorithm

Methodical rule based way to find a solution.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that enable problems to be solved faster.

Insight

Sudden bursts of mental activity that allow for solutions to be uncovered.

Confirmation Bias

Human tendency to search for information that supports our beliefs while ignoring information that doesn’t.

Fixation

The inability to see things from a different perspective.

Functional Fixedness

Type of fixation where only the most common/conventional use of an object can be thought of.

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems in ways that have worked in the past.

Intuition

Effortless, immediate, and automatic feelings or thoughts.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of future events based on how well they match prototypes.

Availability Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

Gambler’s Fallacy

Fallacy where the likelihood of random future events are estimated based on random past events.

Planning Fallacy

Tendency to overestimate one’s future leisure time and income.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

The tendency to stick to an original approach because too much time/effort/money has been put in already.

Belief Perserverance

Persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after they have been discredited.

Motivated Reasoning

Using conclusions that have already been made to assess evidence given.

Framing

The way that an issue is posed, can alter judgement.

Memory

Persistence of learning over time the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Neurodegenerative disease that impacts memory because of beta-amyloid plaques.

Super-Recognizers

Individuals with extra-ordinary abilities for facial recognition.

Recall

Retrieving information that is not currently in conscious awareness e.g. fill in the blank questions.

Recognition

Identifying items that were previously learned e.g. multiple choice questions.

Ebbinghaus’ Retention Curve

Graph that shows how relearning time decreases on subsequent times learning information.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system.

Storing

The process of retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieving

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Connectionism

Information processing model that views memories as products of interconnected neural networks.

Sensory Memory

Type of memory that is a fleeting and brief recording of the past few seconds.

Short-Term Memory

Type of memory that is briefly activated, then either stored or forgotten.

Long Term Memory

Type of memory that is a relatively permanent and limitless archive of memory including knowledge, skills, and experience.

Working Memory

Newer understanding of short term memory, conscious active processing of incoming sensory information and information from long term memory.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Memory stored through rehearsal over time.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Rehearsing information in ways that promote meaning.

Central Executive

Memory component that coordinates the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Phonological Loop

Memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Memory component that briefly holds information about object’s appearance and location.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons.

Long-Term-Potentiation

Increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after rapid stimulation, the neural basis for learning and memory.

Explicit/Declarative Memory

Retention of facts and experiences that can be consciously declared/known.

Effortful Processing

Type of encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information like space, time, or frequency and of familiar information.

Implicit/Nondeclarative Memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious memory.

Iconic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of visual processing.

Echoic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

Chunking

Often automatic memorization strategy of arranging items into manageable and familiar units.

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially ones using vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Method of Loci

Memorization technique where details of memory are added to familiar places.

Hierarchies

Broad categories that are subdivided into narrower concepts, how information is memorized more efficiently.

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study to yield better long term retention.

Massed Practice

Also known as cramming, fast and short term learning.

Testing Effect

Effect relating to enhanced memory after retrieving instead of rereading information.

Shallow Processing

Basic type of processing based on the structure and appearance of words.

Structural Encoding

Type of encoding relating to a word’s structure.

Phonemic Encoding

Type of encoding relating to the sound a word makes.

Deep Processing

Complex type of processing where things are encoded semantically, or based on their meaning.

Semantic Memory

Type of explicit memory of facts/general knowledge.

Episodic Memory

Type of explicit memory of experienced events.

Hippocampus

In the context of memory, structure that acts as a neural center in the limbic system, processing explicit memories for storage.

Memory Consolidation

Term for the neural storage of a long term memory.

Cerebeullum

In the context of memory, structure that coordinates implicit memory and classically conditioned reflexes.

Basal Ganglia

In the context of memory, structure that enables procedural memory of skills.

Infantile Amnesia

Lack of conscious memory for the first ~4 years of life—due to little development of hippocampus or frontal lobes.

Amygdala

In the context of memory, structure that is prompted by stress hormones to form memory traces.