Psychology Exam 1

Chapters 1-4 and Prologue

Empirical Approach

an evidence based method that uses observation and experimentation; a scientific attitude with careful testing, will help us determine which ideas

Critical Thinking

does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; discerns hidden biases, examines assumptions, evaluates evidence

Wilhelm Wundt

Creator of scientific method; first to use carefully measured observations and experiments in psychology

2 Elements that Made Psychology a Science

1) carefully measured observations 2)experiments

Structuralism

used introspection to explore structural elements of the mind; somewhat unreliable; “the science of mental life”

Edward Titchner and Wilhelm Wundt

founder of Structuralism

Functionalism

explored the function of human behaviors; influenced by Darwin

William James

founder of Functionalism

Behaviorism

dismissed introspection; believed science is rooted in observation only; what you cannot measure and observe you cannot study

John B. Watson and BF Skinner

founders of Behaviorism

Freudian/Psychoanalytic Psychology

emphasized the role of unconscious drives, wishes, and needs and the importance of childhood experiences

Sigmund Freud

founder of Psychoanalytic psychology

Humanistic Psychology

positive approach to psychology; focus on needs for love

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

founders of Humanistic Psychology

Cognitive Psychology

(study of) how we perceive, process, and remember information, helped by neuroscience

Psychology

the science of behavioral and mental processes

Evolutionary Psychology

nature; the study of how evolutionary principles help explain the origin and function of the human mind, traits, and behaviors

Behavior Genetics

study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior; How our genes and our environment influence our individual differences; nurture

Cross-Cultural Psychology

some aspects of psychology are the same across cultures and some aren’t

Gender Psychology

study of the differences between genders

Positive Psychology

uses scientific methods to explore the building of a “good life” that engages our skills and a “meaningful life” that points beyond ourselves

Psychology’s three main levels of analysis

biology (deep), psychology (middle), environment (outer)

Biology

deepest level of psychological analysis; genes, brain, neurotransmitters, survival reflexes, sensation

Psychology

middle level of psychological analysis; thoughts, emotions, moods, choices, behaviors, traits, motivations, knowledge, perceptions

Environment/Social-cultural

Outer level of psychological analysis; social influences, culture, education, relationships

Neuroscience (general)

how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

Evolution

how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Psychology

How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

Behavioral Psychology

how we learn observable responses to objects or situations

Socio-cultural Psychology

How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

Hindsight Bias

believing after something happened that you could have predicted/did predict that event

Overconfidence Error

overestimating our performance, rate of work, and skills

Coincidence Error

mistakenly perceiving order in random events; thinking you can make predictions for a random series

Scientific method

self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

Theory

the big picture; explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations; summarizes and simplifies

Hypothesis

informed predictions; testable predictions that specify what results would support the theory and what results would disprove it

Operational Definitions

how research variables are defined; must be precise and measurable

Replication

final step of the scientific method; repeating the study to see if you can get the same results; bigger samples means greater chance of replication

Descriptive Research

systematic, objective observation of people

Strategies for Descriptive Research

case study, naturalistic observation, and surveys/interviews

Case Study

examining one individual or small group in depth; can be unrepresentative information

Naturalistic Observation

watching and not trying to change anything; unable to give cause, only can state observations

Surveys and Interviews

gathering info through self-report; many cases, less depth; sample has to be representative of the population you are studying

Random Sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

when two traits or attributes are related to each other; a measure of the extent to which two factor vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Positive Correlation

when two variables change together in the same direction; as one increases so does the other; as one decreases the other also decreases

Negative Correlation

when two variables change together in opposite directions; as one increases the other decreases and vice versa

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables (from −1.00 to +1.00)

Experimentation

the ONLY way to determine causation; manipulating one factor to determine its effect on some behavior or mental process

Random Assignment

randomly assigning participants to control/experimental groups; how you control all variables except the one you’re manipulating

Experimental Group

group that receives the treatment

Control Group

group that does not receive the treatment

Placebo Effect

experimental effects caused by expectations alone

Independent Variable

the variable manipulated by the experimenter

Dependent Variable

the outcome factor; changes when the other variable is manipulated

Three Types of Research

Descriptive, Correlational, Experimental

Mode

the most common value

Mean

the average of all of the values; sometimes outliers skew this data

median

the number in the middle; half of the values are below and half are above; 50th percentile

Range

the gap between the lowest and highest value

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

Neuron

atoms of the mind; nerve cells

Dendrites

receive messages from other cells/neurons

Axon

passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands; terminal branches of this form junctions with other cells

Meyelin sheath

covers the axon and improves speed of neural impulses; doesn’t fully develop until 25 years old

Action Potential

a neural impulse that travels down an axon and toward axon terminals like a wave; the inflow of positive ions when a neuron fires

Glial cells

support, nourish, and protect neurons and assist neural transmission

excitatory signal

tells neuron “Fire!”

inhibitory signal

tells neuron “Don’t fire!”

Synaptic gap

small gap at the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

the process in which excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron

Dopamine

neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; oversupply linked to schizophrenia

Serotonin

neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression

Endorphins

neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure; overuse of opiates can reduce body’s ability to produce this naturally

Agonist Molecule

molecule that mimics the shape of a neurotransmitter, fills the receptor site, and activates it

Antagonist Molecule

blocks the neurotransmitter from filling the receptor site; decreases neurotransmitters action; example is histamine that blocks the body from producing histamine

Central Nervous System

the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

“the Rest” of the nervous system; extends to all areas of the body

Sensory Neurons

carry messages IN from the body’s tissues and receptors to the CNS for processing

Motor Neurons

carry instructions OUT to the body’s tissues

Interneurons

process info BETWEEN sensory input and motor output; found in the brain and spinal cord

Autonomic

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the self-regulated actions glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)

Somatic

part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles

sympathetic nervous system

part of the autonomic nervous system; arouses the body, mobilizing its energy; fight or flight

parasympathetic nervous system

part of the autonomic nervous system; calms the body and conserves its energy; rest and digest

Neural Networks

work groups or clusters of neurons that work together; these form and strengthen with experience

Interneurons

neurons in the brain and spinal cord that sometimes react without instruction; like jerking your hand away from a hot stove

The Endocrine System

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Adrenal Glands

produce hormones such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol

Pituitary Gland

“master gland”; regulates other glands; produces growth hormone (especially during sleep) and oxytocin (the bonding hormone)

Older Brain Structures

less complex; coordinates the body

Limbic System

border system; manages emotions and connects thought to body; contains the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus

Cortex

the outer covering of the brain; integrates information

Medulla

base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

part of the brainstem above the medulla; helps coordinate automatic and unconscious movements and control sleep