Language, Thinking, and Reasoning in Psychology

Language

Communication using symbols and structured rules.

Phonemes

Basic sound units in spoken language.

Morphemes

Smallest meaning units in a language.

Syntax

Rules for constructing sentences in a language.

Critical period

Optimal time for language acquisition early in life.

Bilingualism

Learning two languages enhances cognitive abilities.

Babbling

Early vocalization stage from 3 months to 1 year.

Telegraphic speech

Two-word phrases expressing simple ideas.

Overgeneralization

Applying grammar rules incorrectly, e.g., 'runned'.

Nativist theory

Innate ability for language acquisition exists at birth.

Interactionist theory

Language develops through interaction and environmental exposure.

Language acquisition device

Innate mechanism for learning language, proposed by Chomsky.

Reinforcement

Positive feedback for correct language usage.

Language deprivation

Lack of exposure impairs language development.

Cross-linguistic differences

Variations in phoneme usage across languages.

Phoneme pruning

Loss of unused phoneme recognition over time.

Cultural language patterns

Language development influenced by cultural context.

Language development stages

Sequential milestones in children's language learning.

Genie Wylie

Case study highlighting critical period for language.

Nonverbal gestures

Communication through body language and expressions.

Language understanding

Cognitive processing of linguistic information.

Language and thought

Language shapes our understanding of the world.

Guugu Yimithirr

Indigenous language from Far North Queensland.

Cardinal directions

Directions based on north, east, south, west.

Linguistic relativity

Language influences thought and perception.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Language shapes our understanding of the world.

Egocentric perspective

Self-centered viewpoint in language and thought.

Geocentric perspective

World-centered viewpoint using cardinal directions.

Cognitive economy

Efficient use of cognitive resources in thinking.

Prototypes

Most typical example of a concept.

Top-down processes

Using existing knowledge to interpret new information.

Algorithm

Rule guaranteeing a solution for well-defined problems.

Heuristic

General problem-solving shortcut or rule of thumb.

Cognitive biases

Systematic errors in thinking and judgment.

Representativeness heuristic

Judgments based on similarity to stereotypes.

Base rate fallacy

Ignoring statistical base rates in judgments.

Availability heuristic

Estimating frequency based on ease of recall.

Cognitive misers

Tendency to minimize cognitive effort in thinking.

Mental sets

Fixed patterns of thinking that hinder problem-solving.

Functional fixedness

Inability to see alternative uses for an object.

Decision-making process

Steps taken to solve problems or make choices.

Time perception

How language influences our understanding of time.

Stereotyping

Oversimplified beliefs about a group of people.

Cognitive processing

Mental activities involved in understanding and reasoning.

Anchoring

Using an initial piece of information to influence decisions.

Heuristic

Mental shortcuts for quick decision-making.

Framing

Presentation of information affecting decision outcomes.

Accuracy-effort trade off

Balancing precision with the effort required.

Hindsight bias

Overestimating prediction ability after an event occurs.

Confirmation bias

Favoring information that supports existing beliefs.

Tunnel vision

Focusing narrowly on evidence supporting a viewpoint.

Functional fixedness

Inability to see alternate uses for an object.

Mental sets

Sticking to one problem-solving strategy.

Monday Morning Quarterback

Critiquing decisions after outcomes are known.

Englich & Mussweiler (2001)

Study on judges' sentencing influenced by anchors.

Guy Paul Morin

Wrongfully convicted due to heuristic biases.

Loss-framed messages

Communications emphasizing potential losses.

Gain-framed messages

Communications emphasizing potential gains.

COVID-19 & Framing

Framing effects on public anxiety and behavior.

Stereotypes

Oversimplified beliefs about groups influencing judgments.

Racialization of crime

Media portrayal linking race and criminality.

Circumstantial evidence

Indirect evidence used to infer conclusions.

Amanda Knox

Wrongfully convicted based on circumstantial evidence.

Emotional toll

Psychological impact of loss-framed communications.

Judicial bias

Judges' decisions influenced by external recommendations.

Crown prosecutor

Legal representative recommending sentences in court.

Memory

Process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Mistaken Identity

Memory errors leading to incorrect recall of events.

Three-Stage Model

Memory consists of sensory, short-term, and long-term stages.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information, lasts milliseconds.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting less than 1 second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting 2-3 seconds.

Short-Term Memory

Limited capacity memory lasting up to 30 seconds.

Magic Number 7

Short-term memory capacity is 7 ± 2 items.

Chunking

Organizing information into smaller, meaningful groups.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to transfer it to long-term memory.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetition of stimuli in the same form.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking information meaningfully for better retention.

Working Memory

Active manipulation of information for reasoning tasks.

Central Executive Processor

Component of working memory for decision-making.

Long-Term Memory

Continuous storage of information, potentially lifelong.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after an event.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before an event.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of first presented stimuli.

Recency Effect

Better recall of most recently presented stimuli.

Case Study: Henry Molaison

Patient with hippocampus removal, suffered memory loss.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

Explicit: conscious recall; Implicit: skills and habits.

Implicit Memory

Memory without conscious recollection of experiences.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recollection of facts and events.

Semantic Memory

General knowledge about the world.

Episodic Memory

Recollection of personal life events.

Non-declarative Memory

Memory not requiring conscious thought.

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and actions.

Priming

Activation of existing information to aid recall.

Hippocampus

Brain region crucial for memory consolidation.

Amygdala

Brain area involved in emotional memory.

Long-term Potentiation

Strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns.

Encoding Failures

Inability to store information due to lack of attention.

Self-reference Effect

Better memory for information relating to oneself.

Stress Effects

Stress can impair memory accuracy and recall.