Chapter 27 - The Sixties

1960 Presidential Election

tight victory for John F Kennedy (D) over VP Richard Nixon (R). amid a depression, Kennedy pledged federal programs to strength the economy while Nixon promoted reliance on private enterprise and less gov spending. first televised debate, focused largely on domestic policy.

President John F Kennedy

35th President serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. attempted to navigate Cold War tensions, including Cuban Missile Crisis. created the Peace Corps and inspired man on the Moon agenda. supported Civil Rights, sending federal troops to enfroce school integration.

The Bay of Bigs (April 16, 1961)

April 1961 failed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles promoted by the US government to overthrow leftist Fidel Castro’s regime. following the cessation of US-Cuban diplomatic relations in January 1961. legitimized the new regime and embarrassed the Kennedy administration.

Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962)

13-day confrontation in October 1962 between US and USSR after Soviet exported missiles to Cuba. on October 28 the crisis resolved as the US removed its missiles from Turkey and pledged not to invade Cuba. in returnthe USSR removed their missiles from Cuba.

1960 Greensboro Sit-Ins

initiated by four Black college student in February 1960, activist sat at segregated lunch counters refusing to leave until being served. often ridiculed, attacked, and arrested. promoted copycat demonstration throughout the South, highlighting student activism.

SNCC (Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee)

disenchanted with the distant professionalized civil rights leadership of older southern ministers, student activists organized direct grassroot actions to pursue civil rights in a more confrontational manner, working alongside SCLC and NAACP.

Freedom Rides (May-November 1961)

May 1961 CORE (congress of racial equality) organized interstate bus rides into the segregated southern US following the Supreme Court outlawing segregated buses and trains. faced with angry KKK mobs. Interstace Commerice Commission enforced integration by Nov 1961.

The Albany Movement (Fall 1961)

grassroots movement in Albany Georgia including SNCC, SCLC, and NAACP. Albany police launched arrests but refused to engage in brutality to avoid the media. unscored the Black Christian community prominence in the Civil Rights movement, including MLK Jr leadership.

Birmingham Campaign (April-May 1963)

series of nonviolent protests in April-May 1963 Birmingham Alabama organized by SCLC and MLK Jr (who was jailed) brought national attention to Jim Crow, segregation, and police brutality. activist victory when Birmingham was forced to integrate public facilities.

March on Washington (August 1963)

rally of over 250,000 for civil rights legislation, school integration, end of employment discrimination, and jobs in D.C. On August 28, 1963, MLK Jr delivered “I Have a Dream” speech on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, pressuring civil rights and economic legislation.

President Lyndon B. Johnson

36th President, from JFK’s assassination 1963 to 1969. known for his Great Society programs to eliminate poverty and racial justice. championed the civil rights movement, signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 (July)

legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or religious origin barred segregation in schools, workplace, and public accommodations and facilities.

Bloody Sunday (March 7 1965)

March 1965 protest march from Selema to Montgomery Alabama advocating for local African American voting rights turned violent as peaceful protesters were attacked by law enforcement with batons and tear gases. media coverage led to LBJ’s Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Voting Rights Act of 1965 (August)

legislation passed in response to Bloody Sunday that abolished voting discrimination in federal, state, and local elections. authorized federal oversight of voter registration in areas with a history of discrimination.

LBJ’s Great Society

LBJ’s domestic programs designed to end poverty and racial injustice, uplift economically disfranchised Americans with guarantees of equal democratic and economic opportunity, ending Jim Crow laws, and raising all American’s quality of life.

Great Society Initiatives (1964)

civil rights legislation, war on poverty, ended 40-year immigration quotas, established federal food stamp program, created Medicare and Medicaid ensuring medical care for the aged and poor, funded public education and college access, funded humanities and art programs.

Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) (1964)

1964 war on poverty legislation aimed at combating poverty through job training (job corps), education (head start), community action programs, and volunteer programs (VISTA) to tackle illiteracy, poor housing, and unemployment.

Community Action Programs

programs from the Economic Opportunity Act that engaged disenfranchised community members in decision about resource allocation and programs instead of having policy decided by business elites of politicians.

Origins of the Vietnam War

following France’s failed attempt to regain Vietnam after World War II, the Geneva Peace Conference (1954) divided North (USSR backed) and South Vietnam (US backed). communist Vietcong (VC) units led to increased military and instability and the fall of south ARVN in 1963.

USS Maddox (August 2, 1964)

reported incoming fire from North Vietnamese ships in the Gulf of Tonkin, pretext for congress passing US involvement in Vietnam. Marines landed in Vietnam March 1965. By 1968 half a million troops were stationed, 20,000 killed, and war was no closer to being won.

1960s Counterculture

stark difference to the 1950s status quo and consumer culture of fitting in. 60s promoted individuality, rebellion, alternative lifestyles, revealing clothing, sexuality, psychedelic (LSD) use, and artistic expression. political upheaveal and civil rights protests fueled the youth.

Malcolm X & Nation of Islam (NOI)

civil rights leader who encouraged Black Americans to pursue equality by any means necessary in stark contrast to MLK Jr’s peaceful protests. advocated for armed resistance and a direct aggressive militant strategy of Black Power and freedom.

Black Panther Party

1966 Black Power organization for direct action and self-dense, using the concept of decolonization to liberate Black communities from white power structures, fostering Black nationalism over integration. used open display of weapons, military-style dress, and militant resistance to police brutality.

Red Power Movement

late 60s-early 70s movement advocating for Native American rights, self-determination, and cultural preservation. focused treaty rights, land reclamation, and sovereignty, inspired by the Black Power movement.

Chicano Movement

1960s-70s civil rights movement advocating for the rights and empowerment of Mexican Americans, promoting cultural pride, farmering worker's rights, pro-labor campigns, land rights, and educational reforms.

Cesar Chavez

leading figure of the Chicano movement who co-founded the United Farm Workers of America to improve working conditions for California farm workers. utilized nonviolent methods including strikes and boycotts.

Presidential Commission on the Status of Women (1961)

established by JFK to address the issues of gender equality and women’s rights, led by Eleanor Roosevelt. 1963 official report advocated for changes to employment practices, federal tax and benefit policies, income, labor laws, and services for wives and mothers. benefited middle-class white women.

The Feminine Mystique (1963)

1963 book by Betty Friedan highlighting the dissatisfaction for many women confined to only domestic roles, advocating for greater personal and professional fulfillment. sparked the second-wave feminist movement in the US.

National Welfare Rights Organization (1966)

1966 civil rights organization advocating for the rights of low-income women and families, pioneered by Black women activists like Johnnie Tillmon, focused on welfare reform, due process, adequate income, dignity, and social reform.

1970 Women’s Strike for Equality

nationwide protest on August 26, 1970, spsonsered by the National Organization for Women (NOW), focused on employment discrimination, political equality, abortion, free childcare, and eqaulity in marriage. mobilized support for women’s rights.

Silent Spring (1962)

1962 book by Rachel Carson that raised public awareness about the dangers of pesticides and environmental degradation, overuse, and pollution. catalyst for the environmental movement and environmental regulations.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1970)

1970 federal agency created by Nixon to study, regulate, and protect the environment. charged with enforcing laws designed to protect water supplies, air pollution, endangered species, and natural areas.

1969 Moon Landing

on July 20, 1969, the Apollo 11 mission fulfilled JFK’s 1961 promise for the US to land the first humans on the Moon, marking a significant achievement in space exploration by NASA, winning the space race against the Soviets.

1968 Year of Turmoil

characterized by widespread riots following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4th and Robert Kennedy on June 5th. social upheaval continued as protests surged against the Vietnam War. the year concluded with the election of Richard Nixon.