Memory - Unit 2

schemas

how people organize and understand information

parallel/dual processing

allows our brains to interpret numerous stimuli & events at one time

multi-store model

sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory

sensory memory

we process everything we sense (this information disappears unless you pay attention)

iconic memory

visual images

echoic memory

auditory signals (think of echo or song)

selective attention

voluntary focus on a portion or sensory input (selective hearing; listen to tv instead of parents)

divided attention

focus on multiple sensory inputs

cocktail party effect

ability to filter out everything except what is important to you

memory span

the number of items a person can remember and repeat back using short term memory

George A. Miller

seven digits thing

Hermann Eddinghaus

found the serial position effect

primary effect

recall initial terms

recency effect

recall the last item in a series

chunking

increase amount of information in short term memory (1996, 2022, 2001)

maintenance rehearsal

repeating information to keep in short term memory

information - processing memory

3 step process for entering info into long - term memory (encoding, rehearsal, retrieval)

encoding

converting info so the brain can understand it (similar to coding for a computer)

elaborate rehearsal

transfer from short term to long term memory

shallow processing

memorize; tend to forget ideas quickly

deep processing

meaningful analysis of info

episodic memories

post events from personal experiences (emotions)

semantic memories

basic facts and information (colors, formulas)

procedural memories

remembering steps in process (tie your shoes, cooking)

automatic processing

processing that occurs without you being aware of it

implicit memories

retained without conscious awareness (muscle movements, open door)

priming

cues that lead to retrieval from long term memory (sights, sounds)

effortful processing

conscious effort to encode memories (studying key terms)

explicit memories

conscious thoughts to bring to mind (powerhouse of cell)

state dependent memory

same state of consciousness as when memory formed (learn something while chewing gum)

mood dependent memory

retrieval is easier in same mood (emotions have to be genuine)

context dependent memory

retrieval in same environment (gum, music)

recognition

identifying information from a list of potential options (multiple choice questions)

recall

retrieving information from memory directly (without help/FRQ)

savant syndrome

memory abilities above average

tip of the tongue state

"its" on the tip of my tongue

prospective memory

"memory of the future"; remembering to do something later

relearning

learn something you previously learned

learning curve

shows the relationship between increase of learning and experience

encoding failure

info fails to enter long term memory because it was never encoded

memory traces

physical changes in brain that occur when memories are stored

trace decay theory

if you don't trace, it will become weaker

interference theory

how different memories can interrupt each other (parents calling you your siblings name)

retroactive interference

new memories interrupt retrieval of old memories

proactive interference

old memories interrupt retrieval of new memories

forgetting curve

shows exponential loss of information shortly after learning

retrograde amnesia

forgetting events before injury (playing sports and getting injury)

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new long term memories

pseudo-memories

false memories that a person believes is true

misinformation effect

new information alters previous way information is held in memory

source amnesia

memory retains substance but the source is forgotten

flashbulb memories

vivid and detailed memories of major events (9/11, Queen's death)

phoneme

smallest sound in a language

morphemes

language that has meaning (prefixes)

syntax

grammar

semantics

understanding the meaning of phrases and sentences in a literal way

pragmatics

understanding the meaning of phrases and sentences in context

babbling stage

infants making random sounds

one word stage

child speaks simple words

two word stage

child says 2 to 3 word statements

overgeneralization

incorrect use of grammar (mommy buyed me a present)

sensitive/critical period

difficulty learning language later in life

linguistic relativity

language influences thought

concepts

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people (different types of chairs)

category hierarchies

superordinate and subordinate

prototype

mental image of a specific concept or category

exemplar

prototype from personal experience

critical thinking

goes beyond concepts and prototypes

creative thinking

ability to produce original and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

question only leads to one correct answer (not creative thinking)

divergent thinking

when a question or problem has many possible responses

metacognition

thinking about thinking

fixed mindset

problem can't be solved

growth mindset

problem is solvable

trial and error

problems with few solutions

analogies

help solve problems but are difficult to spontaneously think of

algorithms

problem solving step by step

heuristics

mental shortcuts; save problems faster

insight

sudden realization of a solution; "lightbulb"

intuition

knowing info without knowing how you know it

self - serving bias

attribute positive results to internal factors (I did great because I'm awesome), negative for external (I failed because of someone else)

confirmation bias

search for information you already believe in

belief perseverance

cling to initial conceptions even if proven incorrect

hindsight bias

overestimate ability to know what's going to happen

functional fixedness

inability to see problem from a different perspective (lack of creative thinking)

mental set

approach problem in ways that have worked in the past

anchoring effect

favoring the first information offered

representativeness heuristic

making assumptions based on how they match problems

availability heuristic

make a decision based on the information that first comes to mind

illusory correlation

incorrect belief that a correlation is actually causation

gambler's fallacy

incorrect belief will occur based on results of previous events

sunk-cost fallacy

continue behavior due to resources invested in it

effort justification

think higher of actions after a lot of effort has been put in

Sir Francis Galton

Believed in heritability of intelligence (nature)

Mental age

Age child was operating at (comparison to peers)

Chronological age

Actual age of child

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

Focused on environmental factors of intelligence (nurture)

Lewis Terman

Wanted to bring IQ tests to U.S (invented Stanford-Binet Test)

David Wechsler

Criticized the Stanford-Binet tests for being too focused on verbal skills (memory, English)

Charles Spearman

Noticed people who scored higher on one measure of intelligence will score well on others