ap bio final

Macromolecules

Macromolecules

A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules

CHNOPS

elements essential for life

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule

Polar

Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water.

Nonpolar

No partial charges. Do not mix with water.

Ionic Bond

Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

Hydrogen Bond

A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule.

Electronegative

the ability of an atom of an element to attract electrons when the atoms is in a compound

Cohesion

Attraction between molecules of the same substance

Adhesion

An attraction between molecules of different substances

Capillarity

The rise of a liquid in a fine, hollow tube or in a narrow space.

Specific Heat

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius

Evaporation

The change of a substance from a liquid to a gas

Solvent

the substance in which the solute dissolves

pH

hydrogen ion concentration

Acid

A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.

Base

A substance that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.

Neutral

Not favoring either side (pH of 7)

Hydronium

H3O+

Hydroxide

OH-

Buffer

A solution that minimizes changes in pH when extraneous acids or bases are added to the solution.

Carbohydrate

compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms; major source of energy for the human body

Monosaccharide

A single sugar molecule such as glucose or fructose, the simplest type of sugar.

Protein

An organic compound that is made of one or more chains of amino acids and that is a principal component of all cells

Amino Acid

Building blocks of protein; has an amino group, carboxyl group and a variable group

Lipid

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Fatty Acid

hydrocarbon chain often bonded to glycerol in a lipid

Glycerol

A three-carbon alcohol to which fatty acids are covalently bonded to make fats and oils.

Phospholipid

a lipid that contains phosphorus and that is a structural component in cell membranes

Triglyceride

a lipid made of three fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule

Wax

lipid made of a long-chain fatty acid that is esterified to a long-chain alcohol; serves as a protective coating on some feathers, aquatic mammal fur, and leaves

Nucleic Acid

macromolecule containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus

Nucleotide

monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

Polymer

large compound formed from combinations of many monomers

Monomer

A simple compound whose molecules can join together to form polymers

Isomer

Compounds with the same formula but different structures.

Hydrocarbon

An organic compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen

Functional Group

A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions.

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a H from one molecule and an OH from the other molecule

Hydrolysis

Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water

Glycosidic Linkage

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

Saturated Fat

A lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms

Unsaturated Fat

A lipid made from fatty acids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms.

Hydrophobic

Water fearing

Hydrophilic

water loving

Polypeptide

long chain of amino acids that makes proteins

Peptide Bond

The chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid

Amino Group

A functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms

R-Group

used to represent one of 20 possible side chains found in amino acids of living systems

Carboxyl Group

A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group.

Primary Structure

The first level of protein structure; the specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure

The second level of protein structure; the regular local patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain.

Tertiary Structure

The third level of protein structure; the overall, three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide due to interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain.

Quaternary Structure

The fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.

Enzyme

A type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living thing

Catalyst

substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.

Cell

The basic unit of structure and function in living things

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Responsiveness

Reaction to a change inside or outside the body

Reproduction

Ability to generate offspring

Prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Unicellular

Made of a single cell

Multicellular

Made up of more than one cell.

Cell Wall

A rigid layer of nonliving material that surrounds the cells of plants and some other organisms.

Flagella

whiplike tails found in one-celled organisms to aid in movement

Eukaryote

A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

Organelle

specialized structure that performs important cellular functions within a eukaryotic cell

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement

Endosymbiosis

A theorized process in which early eukaryotic cells were formed from simpler prokaryotes.

Mitochondrion

Cell organelle that converts the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient for the cell to use

Chloroplast

An organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs

Cytoplasm

A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended

Cell Membrane

thin, flexible barrier around a cell; regulates what enters and leaves the cell

Chromatin

granular material visible within the nucleus; consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins

Nuclear Envelope

layer of two membranes that surrounds the nucleus of a cell

Nucleolus

Found inside the nucleus and produces ribosomes

Ribosome

Cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are synthesized.

Endomembrane System

A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another.

Smooth ER

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes.

Rough ER

ER that is dotted with ribosomes

Golgi Apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell

Lysosome

A small, round cell structure containing chemicals that break down large food particles into smaller ones.

Vesicle

Small membrane-bound sac that functions in moving products into, out of, and within a cell.

Vacuole

Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates

Hydrolytic Enzyme

enzyme that catalyzes a reaction in which the substrate is broken down by the addition of water

Contractile Vacuole

saclike organelles that expand to collect excess water and contract to squeeze the water out of the cell

Central Vacuole

in a mature plant cell, a large membranous sac with diverse roles in growth, storage, and sequestration of toxic substances

Peroxisome

organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product, then converts it to water

Microtubules

Spiral strands of protein molecules that form a tubelike structure

Microfilaments

a small rodlike structure, about 4-7 nanometers in diameter, present in numbers in the cytoplasm of many eukaryotic cells.

Extracellular Matrix

a collection of extracellular molecules secreted by cells that provides structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells.

Plasmodesmata

An open channel in the cell wall of plants through which strands of cytosol connect from adjacent cells

Tight Junction

a firm seal between two adjacent animal cells created by protein adherence

Desmosome

a type of intercellular junction in animal cells that functions as a rivet, fastening cells together

Gap Junction

A type of intercellular junction in animals that allows the passage of materials between cells.

Lipid Bilayer

flexible double-layered sheet that makes up the cell membrane and forms a barrier between the cell and its surroundings

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work