Anatomy Exam 1

Anatomy

Anatomy

Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

Physiology

Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities

Three Areas of Anatomy

1. Gross or macroscopic anatomy

2. Microscopic Anatomy

3. Developmental Anatomy

Structural Organization

Chemical Cellular Tissue Organ Organ System Organismal Level

Requirements for Life

1. Maintaining boundaries

2. Movement

3. Responsiveness

4. Digestion

5. Metabolism

6. Excretion

7. Reproduction

8. Growth

Maintaining Boundaries

Separation between internal external environments must exist

Movement

Muscular system allows movement

Contractility

Refers to movement at the cellular level

Responsiveness

Ability to sense and respond to stimuli

Digestion

Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into blood

Metabolism

All chemical reactions that occur in body cells -The sum of all catabolism and anabolism

Excretion

Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion

Urea

A chemical that comes from the breakdown of proteins -Excretion

Reproduction

At the cellular and organismal level

Growth

Increase in size of a body part or of organisms

The 11 Organ Systems

1. Integumentary

2. Skeletal

3. Muscular

4. Nervous

5. Endocrine

6. Cardiovascular

7. Lymphatic

8. Respiratory

9. Digestive

10. Urinary

11. Reproductive

Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous receptors and seat and oil glands

Skeletal System

Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals

Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.

Nervous System

As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.

Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

Cardiovascular System

Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.

Lymphatic System

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body

Respiratory System

Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

Digestive System

Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.

Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

Reproduction System

Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.

Homeostasis

maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment

Three components of homeostatic control

1. receptor

2. control center

3. effector

Receptor

monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli)

Control Center

Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained, receives input from receptor, and determines appropriate response

Effector

Receives output from the control center and produces a response -Receives either reduce stimulus (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback)

receptor to control center

afferent pathway

Control Center to Effector

efferent pathway

negative feedback

The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus

Negative Feedback examples

body temperature, blood pressure, glucose regulation

Positive Feedback

Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus -May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect as feedback causes the variable to continue in the same direction as the initial change

Positive Feedback Examples

enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin, platelet plug formation, and blood clotting

Matter

Anything that has mass and occupies space

Weight

Mass plus the effects of gravity

State of Matter

A physical property that describes matter as a solid, liquid, or gas.

Solid

Definite shape and volume

Liquid

changeable shape; definite volume

Gas

Changeable shape and volume

Energy

The capacity to do work and put matter into motion

Two Forms of Energy

kinetic and potential

Kinetic Energy

Energy in action

Heat

A disoriented type of kinetic energy- lowest form of energy quality

Potential Energy

Energy that is stored and held in readiness

Forms of Energy

Chemical Energy Electrical Energy Mechanical Energy Radiant or Electromagnetic Energy

Chemical Energy

Stored in bonds of chemical substances -Food which we breakdown into ATP

Electrical Energy

Results from movement of charged particles -Action potential in neurons

Mechanical Energy

Directly involved in moving matter

Radiant or Electromagnetic Energy

Travels in waves (example: heat, visible light, ultraviolent light, and x-rays)

Energy from Conversions

Energy may be converted from one form to another

this is inefficient because 75% is lost as heat. that is why you sweat it is the release of that in made in the body when doing work

Elements

substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances

Four elements make up 96% of body

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen

Atoms

Building block for each element, smallest particles of an element with properties of that element

Atomic Symbol

one or two-letter chemical shorthand for each element -Some symbols come from Latin names "Na" natrium is sodium

The subatomic particles of an atom

protons, neutrons, electrons

Protons

carry a positive charge

Neutrons

no charge

Electrons

Negatively charged particles

Orbital Model

represents electrons as a cloud of negative charge

Planetary Model

Shows electrons as two small spheres on a circle around the nucleus

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons

Radioisotopes

Isotopes that decompose to more stable forms As isotopes decay, subatomic particles that are being given off release a little energy that's called radioactivity

Molecules

Groups of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

Compound

Specific molecule that has 2 or more different kinds of atoms bonded together

Chemical Bonds

energy relationships between electrons of reacting atoms

Types of Chemical Bonds

ionic, covalent, hydrogen

Ionic Bonds

Involves the transfer of valence shell electrons from one atom to another, resulting in ions

Ions

Atoms that have gained or lost electrons and become charged

Anion

A negatively charged ion -One that gained the electron

Cation

A positively charged ion -One that lost the electron

Moat ionic compounds are...

salts -When dry, salts form crystals instead of individual molecules

Covalent Bonds

Bonds created by sharing electrons with other atoms. -Allows each atom to fill its valence shell at least part of the time

Two Types of Covalent Bonds

polar and nonpolar

Polar Covalent Bond

The unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms that gives rise to negative and positive regions of electric charge -The more electronegative atom gets most of the electron

Most Common Polar Molecule

water

nonpolar covalent bond

a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms, results in electronically balanced, nonpolar molecules such as CO2

Hydrogen Bonds

Attractive forces between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule -Not a true bond, more of a weak magnetic attraction

Chemical Equations Contain

reactants and products

Reactants

Substances entering into reaction together

Products

resulting chemical end products

Types of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis and Decomposition

Synthesis

Combination reactions involve atoms or molecules combining to form larger, more complex molecules -Used in anabolic (building) processes

Decomposition

Involves the breakdown of a molecule into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms -Involves catabolic reactions

Biochemistry

The study of chemical composition and reactions of living matter

Organic Compounds

Compounds that contain carbon, usually large and covalently bonded

Most abundant inorganic compound in the body

Water. 60-80% of the volume of living cells.

Water Properties

High Heat Capacity High Heat of Vaporization Polar Solvent Properties Reactivity Cushioning

Salts

Inorganic ionic compounds that dissociate into separate ions in water

Acids and Bases

Ionize and dissociate in water

Acids

Proton donors: they release hydrogen ions, bare protons (have no electrons) in solution

Important Acids

HCl (hydrochloric acid), HC2H3O2 (acetic acid, abbreviated HAc), and H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

Carbonic Acid

A very weak acid formed in solution when carbon dioxide dissolves in water- When we don't get rid of enough CO2 and it reacts with water, our blood becomes acidic

Bases

Proton acceptors: they pick up H+ ions in solution Example: NaOH --> Na+ and OH-

When a base dissolves in solution, it releases a hydroxyl ion (OH-)

pH Scale

A measurement of concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution

pH scale ranges from

0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic)

-pH scale is logarithmic, so each pH unit represents a 10-fold difference (a pH of 5 solution is 10 times more acidic than a pH of 6 solution)