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Neural communications are active over
Millimeters
What is the speed of action for Neural communications
milliseconds
What is the spatial extent of Neural communications
precise
What is the effect of Neural communications
All or none
Hormonal communications are active over
meters
What is the speed of action for Hormonal communications
minutes/hours/days
What is the spatial effect of Hormonal communications
diffuses
What is the effect of Hormonal communications
Graded
What does the male orgasm lead to the activation of?
The Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
What does the female orgasm lead to the activation of?
Activation of deep cerebellar nuclei and inhibition of orbitofrontal cortex
What is common in both sexes when it comes to sex, smell, aggression, and emotions?
The medial amygdala
For males, which part of the brains size is correlated with sexual activity?
Sexually dimorphic nucleus
For females, which part of the brain is responsible for receptivity to male advances?
The Ventromedial hypothalamus
Which neurotransmitter promotes sexual activity and behaviour?
Dopamine
Which neurotransmitter decreases sex drive and impairs sexual ability?
Serotonin
When are organizing effects likely to take place?
Before or just after birth
How long do organizing effects take place?
Lifelong thing
Women have greater grey matter in which areas?
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the Superior temporal gyrus
Which hemisphere is thicker in men than women?
The right hemisphere
Women are better are multitasking because of what reason?
They are better connected from the left to the right
What brain region is smaller in homosexual men than in heterosexual men?
INAH3
High estrogen levels associated with what?
Depressed spatial ability and Enhanced speech and manual skill tasks
Which gene drives the development of testes?
SRY Gene
What is the main difference between male and female sexual response curves?
Males have a refractory phase, which creates a delay between orgasm, whereas females do not have a refractory phase
How many levels of sex determination are there?
Seven
What is the first level of sex determination?
Chromosomal Sex
What is the second level of sex determination?
Gondal sex
What is the third level of sex determination?
Internal Sex Organs
What is the fourth level of sex determination?
External Sex Organs
What is the fifth level of sex determination?
Brain sex
What is the sixth level of sex determination?
Gender Identity
What is the seventh level of sex determination?
Gender Preference
Testosterone during second trimester increases cerebral asymmetry via accelerated growth of which hemisphere?
Right hemisphere
What brain region is smaller in homosexual men than in heterosexual men?
INAH3 (aka Sexual Dimorphic Nucleus)
What brain region is the site of primary activation during orgasm?
VTA
What is Hypovolemic Thirst stimulated by?
low extracellular/intravascular volume (sweating, bleeding, loss of volume not the concentration)
What is Osmotic Thirst stimulated by?
high extracellular solute concentration (why you get thirsty after eating something salty, change in concentration not in volume)
What area does angiotensin II act on?
The subfornical organ (SFO)
What hormone is released in response to hypovolemia?
Vasopressin and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (same hormone)
Tom fell while he was running and got a fairly large cut. He would likely experience which of the following?
Hypovolemic thirst and increased blood pressure
_________________ is triggered by low extracellular/intravascular volume
Hypovolemic thirst
_________________ is triggered by high extracellular solute concentration
Osmotic thirst
What neuron does leptin target to inhibit from secreting neuropeptides?
AgRP neurons
POMC/ CART neurons produce what to inhibit appetite and stimulate metabolism?
Pro-opiomelanocortin and CART
What is the part of the brain that activates when experiencing disgust?
Insula
At what age is metabolism at its peak?
Birth to age 1
The OVLT cell membrane opens what ion channel in response to osmotic thirst?
Na
What organ is insulin made by?
Pancreas
What is the cellular mechanism of osmotic thirst?
Water pass through the membrane, high solute concentration outside
What detects changes in blood volume?
Baroreceptors
Which part of the brain is responsible for making us feel hungry?
Lateral Hypothalamus
When are ghrelin levels at their highest and lowest points, respectively?
While fasting; While eating
What is one common outcome of patients with either VMH or LH lesions?
Weight stabilizes to a new baseline
What role does leptin play in the mechanism of weight regulation by the NPY/AgRP and POMC/CART neurons?
Leptin stimulates POMC neurons and inhibits AgRP neurons
What are some of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa
Refusal to maintain body weight, Fear of weight gain, Body image disturbance
Teenagers with anorexia have a larger what?
insula and orbitofrontal cortex
What are some symptoms for bullmia?
Recurrent binge eating, Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior (e.g. purging) at least 2x/wk for 3 months
What does the lateral hypothalamus do?
Makes us feel hungry (lesion would make you feel not hungry most of the time, leading to a weight drop)
What does the Ventromedial hypothalamus do?
Tells you when you are full (lesion would mean you would overeat because you can’t tell, making it so that you are more likely to be obese + have a lot more weight gain)
VMH lesions destroy what?
anorexigenic (stops making you hungry) PVN
LH lesions destroy what?
orexigenic (makes you hungry) LHA
What do NPY/AgRP Neurons do?
Stimulate appetite and lower metabolism, leading to weight gain
What do POMC/CART Neurons do?
Inhibit appetite and raise metabolism, leading to weight loss
Leptin is produced by what?
Fat cells (then get secreted into the bloodstream)
What is Prader-Willi syndrome?
a genetic disease that causes persistently elevated ghrelin levels leading to her continuously feeling hungry
People with obesity are what?
leptin-resistant
What is ghrelin?
Released by stomach and gut endocrine cells to stimulate appetite
When do ghrelin levels rise?
During fasting
When do ghrelin levels fall?
after eating
What is glucose
The main body fuel
What are lipids?
Long term stored in fat tissue
When is the metabolism slow?
ages 1 to age 20
When is the metabolism in plateu?
from age 20 to age 60
When does metabolism fall by 1% every year?
From age 60 onwards
POMC/CART neurons in the hypothalamus:
Inhibit appetite and raise metabolism
People with Antisocial Personality Disorder would have
Less Gray matter in the PFC
Where would you expect to find the smallest 2-point discrimination?
Finger Tips
Activation of which brain region results in analgesic effects:
Periaqueductal Gray
What part of the auditory pathway is vital for sound localization?
Superior Olive
Someone with a lesion to Broca’s Area:
Would be able to comprehend language but not produce speech
From outermost to innermost, what is the order of the ossicles?
Malleus, incus, stapes
Which of the following is due to damage to the cochlea?
Sensorineural deafness
What is released by the stomach, as shown here? (in response to hunger)
Ghrelin
Steven was shot in the leg and was bleeding heavily. He felt very thirsty. Steven is experiencing _____ thirst due to decreased blood flow signals detected by ______.
Hypovolemic, subfornical organ
What are osmosensory neurons?
Detects changes in sodium concentration
The posterior pituitary secretes
Vasopressin, oxytocin
Which two brain areas are observed to be larger in gay
men as compared to homosexual men?
Suprachiasmatic nucleus, anterior commissure
A delta fibers also carry information from _____
TRP2
TRP2 respond to ____
high temperature
C fibers carry information from______
CMR1 & TRPV1
CMR1 respond to
low temperature
TPRVI responds to
moderate temperature
Most sensory pathways pass through the ______ to end in the _______
Thalamus
Most sensory pathways end in the _______
cerebral cortex
Low frequency sound location is coded by ______
Latency
Latency differences are coded by the medial superior olive
the medial superior olive
Lesions to the angular gyrus would cause what effect?
Patient able to speak and understand, but not read aloud
Your gonadal sex is primarily determined by ________.
Development of testes
What hormone is associated with Cushing’s disease?
ACTH
Angiotensin II results in?
Vasopressin (ADH) release and Triggers drinking via circumventricular organs
Note
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