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This is technically 1/2 of unit 5 which is Cognitive Psychology
Memory
biocognitive process of recording information and experiences in a manner that can be organized & recalled repetitively over time
Categories of memory
Declarative (generic) memory
Prospective memory
Procedural memory
Episodic memory
Flashbulb memories
Declarative Memory
general knowledge
academics → facts, dates, images, numbers
information typically encoded with language
Anatomical requirements
Hippocampus, LADs
Prospective Memory
organizational memory used to recall appointments, dates, tasks scheduled to be completed in the future
Anatomical Requirements
Hippocampus, LADs
Procedural Memory (executive functioning)
memory of…
learned skills and operational processes
correct sequence of steps
memories of step-by-step actions with sequential organization
requires higher level learning abilities
typically requires muscle coordination
Anatomical requirements
Hippocampus, LADs, motor cortex, cerebellum
Episodic Memory
memories of specific events & experiences
type of memory most influenced by sensory input / emotion
memories most commonly repressed and unlocked by physical sensation and emotional cues
Anatomical Requirements
Hippocampus
Flashbulb Memories
memories of events associated with intense emotion (trauma) that can be revealed with vivid detail
trauma activates Sympathetic Nervous System
initiates the release of Acetylcholine
recollection of highly-emotional events from the
past that appear as though it “happened
yesterday”
Serial Position Effect
analysis of memory retrieval accuracy (or retrieval failure) of items presented in a list based upon their position
Humans can remember an average number of _____
7 items
Primacy Effect
stimuli have the highest likelihood of retrieval when located in the beginning of the list
Recency Effect
retrieval accuracy recovers with stimuli that are positioned at the end of the list
Memory is the weakest in the ___
middle of the list
Conceptual Memory
memory relative to the process of conceptual development
memory of schematic categories and items within schemas
Natural Concepts
memory of prototype
Artificial Concepts
memory of mental checklists
Hierarchical Concepts
memory of most important features and characteristics
Associative Memory
memory retrieval based upon a stimulus’ relative similarity to other items within the schema
paradoxical
stimuli differences often delay memory retrieval
sometimes stimuli differences can actually enhance memory retrieval
Memory Summation
the mind’s natural tendency to draw conclusions & generalize the contents of a list or schema
brain’s efficient information processing system allows us to label schematic categories
contributor to False Memory Syndrome
Encoding
the process of translating transduced neural impulses from sensory receptors and arranging them into unique neurological codes that can be retained into memory storage
Hippocampus
memory encoder
Encoding Specificity Principle
optimal memory retrieval is recalled in the same manner / order in which it was first learned
the coding sequence used to create a memory also
establishes the same neural pathway used to retrieve it
memory retrieval via alternative neural pathways lead
to memory delay or failure
Rote Memory
memory recalled verbatim from the order in which it was encoded; regurgitated information with no analysis or comprehension of learned behavior
Mnemonic Devices
encoding technique using unique cues of phrases, words, and symbols that represent larger groups of memory schema
Memory Storage
the ability to retain encoded neural impulses over a period of time
not a structure of brain anatomy
Memories are stored ____
within the neural circuitry; 2/3 of neurons are concentrated in the cortex
Chunking Method
organization of serial stimuli into manageable units typically with the use of rhythmic pauses
Sensory Memory
initial recordings of environmental information
filtering & screening stage
time transitions (RF → Pons)
enormous capacity but with very limited duration
Multi-sensory input
organization of stimuli with combinations of various sensory signals to increase duration & accuracy of working memory
Olfactory Memory
this memory is unfiltered by the RF; most powerful sensory retrieval cue for memory
Echoic Memory (auditory) has…
2-4 second duration
Iconic Memory has…
½ second duration
Eidetic Memory / Imagery
photographic memory
permanent storage of an image after viewing it only once
also typical with audition
present in <0.07% of population
<3% of children population; the ability gradually fades by the end of puberty
Short Term Memory (STM)
transitional storage from sensory level to LTM
limited capacity with limited duration
information is held 20~30 seconds without rehearsal
Immediate Retention Span
maximum amount of information that can be recalled perfectly after just one presentation
Long Term Memory (LTM)
levels of memory retention lasting from several days to years
extended duration with unlimited capacity
Memory Consolidation
the process by which the brain turns short-term memories into long-term memories
without routine up-keep of memories, they will fade and deteriorate
requires conscious effort
Synaptic Consolidation
reinforcing trace memories from sensory experience to STM
System Consolidation
transferring short-term memories through hippocampus to promote long-term storage
Maintenance Rehearsal Techniques
continual repetition of information
stimulate the crystallization of myelin, strengthening the memory
memory decay becomes slowed as information is encoded by the hippocampus multiple times
Elaborative Rehearsal
relating new information into concepts that are currently part of your working memory
building upon prior knowledge
translating new concepts into your own words
Organizational Systems
promoting long term memory by consolidating information with habit & routine
establishing sequentially-ordered systems of step-by-step procedures promotes retrieval
Context-Dependent Memory Cues
memories that are triggered by reconnecting with the place in which the memory was experienced & encoded
physical cues based upon sensory perception
recalling memories by returning to the physical location they were created
State-Dependent Memory Cues
memories triggered by states of emotional cues
reconnecting current states of mind to similar emotional states from past experiences
happy mood → happy memories
Deja vu
flashback memory illusions of past experiences
overwhelming sense of familiarity when something logically shouldn’t be familiar
89% of population has reported this at least once
highly common in patients with temporal epilepsy
Biological explanation for deja vu
neurological short circuit within the parahippocampal gyrus region; memories retrieved simultaneously when encoded
Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon
the ability to recall stored memory but retrieval delay prevents information from becoming verbalized in a timely manner
Recognition
basic identification of stimuli, people, places, information, etc.
Recall
identification with comprehension
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
Working Memory
new understanding to STM; conscious, active processing both coming sensory information and information retrieved from LTM
Central Executive
a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
Phonological Loop
a memory component that briefly holds auditory information
Visuospatial Sketchpad
a memory component that briefly holds information about objects appearances or location in space
Neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
Long Term Potential
an increase in nerve cells firing potential after rapid stimulation; neural basis for learning and memory
Effortful Processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency and of familiar or well-learned information such as sounds, smells, or word meanings
Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
Spacing Effect
a psychological phenomenon that describes how learning is more effective when study sessions are spread out over time instead of crammed together
Hierarchics
systems where individuals or concepts are ranked one above another based on specific criteria
The Testing Effect
the finding that long-term memory is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information
Shallow Processing
a type of mental processing that focuses on the surface-level characteristics of information or stimuli, rather than its deeper meaning
Deep Processing
a cognitive psychology concept that refers to the way information is encoded and processed in a meaningful way to help with long-term memory
Mood-Congruent Memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
Interleaving
a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics
Memory Decay
the natural, gradual, and predictable erosion of memory
Forgetting
deterioration of a memory; loss of details and accuracy often due to the passage of time or interference from other information
Hermann Ebbinghaus
cognitive psychologist
he discovered the empirical measurement of memory and it’s decay
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
memory decay occurs most rapidly shortly after learning
the rate of decay is rapid then plateaus and gradually deteriorates over time
Spaced Practice
practice that extends the longevity of the memory, prolongs the rate of decay
Massed Practice
practice that accelerates the rate of decay causing the memory to be forgotten prematurely
Memory Interference Theory
the idea that competing memories can disrupt the retrieval of information, leading to forgetting.
Interference
conflicts within “working memory” that exist when older and more recent information compete for the same limited space
Retroactive Interference
older memories become distorted when blurred with newer, similar information; ex. unable to remember old phone number
Proactive Interference
the ability to recall new information becomes distorted when blurred with older similar memories
Eye-witness Testimony
the account given by people of an event they have witnessed, which can be influenced by various factors such as stress, leading questions, and the passage of time
Selective Memory
the tendency to remember certain events, people, or experiences while forgetting others
Every time a memory is retrieved…
it’s biochemistry is altered
The more an individual shares with others…
the more their memories of an event will fuse/blur together, making a group of eye-witnesses unreliable
Eye-witness Simulation Study
a study used to investigate how eyewitnesses recall events, often showing the influence of misinformation and group dynamics on memory.
Misinformation Effect
occurs when memory has been corrupted by misleading information
Source Amnesia
the ability to retain factual information but unable to remember when, where, or how the information was acquired
Repression
the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
Reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
Anterograde Amnesia
the inability to form new memories
memory impairment due to physical brain trauma
injury is located in hippocampal region of the midbrain
also called “Short Term Memory Loss”
Retrograde Amnesia
inability to recall information about one’s past
memory impairment due to physical brain trauma, usually to cerebral cortex
memories typically restored once brain heals
____ is being used to help research memory in humans
sea slugs
MEM14
boosts CREB levels and enhances the brain’s LTM
X717
Controls “AMPA receptors” in the brain that help strengthen the synapses
The brain first stores short term info ____
in the prefrontal cortex; from then on it selects bits to transform into long term memories
CREB
the brain’s sculptor; it forms memories by reshaping the synapses; less of it means less memory-making abilities
Omega 3 fatty acids
_____ keep the blood vessels in the brain clear of blockages
Transcience
refers to a weakening or loss of memory over time
Absentmindedness
involves a breakdown at the interference between attention and memory
Blocking
entails a thwarted search for information we may be desperately trying to receive
Absentminded memories occur…
because we are preoccupied with distracting issues or concerns, and don’t focus attention on what we need to remember
Persistance
repeated recall of disturbing information or events that we would prefer to banish from our minds
Bias reflects…
the powerful influences of our current beliefs on how we remember our pasts. We often edit or entirely rewrite our previous experiences
Infantile Amnesia
inability to recall information from early childhood; result of underdeveloped hippocampus and LADs;
Earliest memories tend to be…
tend to be episodic flashbulb memories
Note 
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