BehSci Block 2

Learning

Process of acquiring new information through experience

Conditioning

process of learning associations

Classical Conditioning

learn to anticipate two stimuli, and thus to anticipate events

respondent behavior

occurs as automatic response to some stimulus

operant conditioning

learn to associate a response and its consequences

operant behaviors

operates on environment, produces consequence.

Behaviorism

view psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior w/o reference to mental process

Neutral stimuli

stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditional response

unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditional stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditional response

Conditioned response

learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

conditioned stimulus

originally neutral stimulus that after association w/ an unconditional stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Acquisition

initial learning of association; initial stage when one links a stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering conditioned response.

Extinction

diminishing of a conditioned response ; when an unconditioned stimulus doesn't follow a conditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery

reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that don't signal an unconditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

organism associate own actions w consequences

Law of Effect

behaviors followed by more favorable outcomes become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes become less likely

Operant Chamber

chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water

Shaping Behavior

procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer & closer approximations of desired behavior

Reinforcements

any even that strengthens behavior it follows. NOT A PUNISHMENT

Positive Reinforcement

Any stimulus that when presented after a response strengthens a response; Add a good thing

Negative Reinforcement

Any stimulus that when removed after a response strengthens response; take away a bad thing

Primary reinforcers

Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

Conditioned reinforcers

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Fixed Ratio Schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Fixed Interval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable Ratio Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Variable Interval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Punishment

event that tends to decrease behavior it follows

Positive Punishment

addition of something unpleasant

Negative Punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus

Observational Learning

learning by observing others

Mirror Neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another do so

Prosocial Behaviors

behaviors; positive constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior

latent learning

learning that occurs but not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Cognitive map

mental representation of the layout of someone's environment.

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Recall

retrieving info learned earlier

recognition

person identifies item previously learned

relearning

asses amount of time saved when learning material again

Three-stage model of memory processing

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

Explicit memories

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and "declare"

Implicit memories

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious of recollection

Iconic Memory

visual sensory memory

Echoic Memory

auditory sensory memory

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically.

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Shallow Processing

encoding on a basic level , based on structure or appearance of words

Deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

Retrograde Amnesia

inability to remember info from one's past

Storage Decay

course of forgetting is initially rapid then levels overtime

Retrieval failure

forgetting is not memories faded but memories unretrieved.

Proactive Interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

new learning disrupts recall of old information

Repress

basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Misinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source Amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where info was learned or imagined

Deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

Cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

Algorithms

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Insight

sudden realization of a problem's solution

Confirmation Bias

tendency to search for info that supports preconceptions & ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

Intuition

effortless, immediate, auto feeling or response

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct

Belief perserverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

Framing

the way an issue is posed

Human Centered Design

focuses on people during design and development

Four Principles of Human Centered Design

focus on people and their context, solve the right problems, acknowledge everything is a complex system, use small interventions with continual prototyping testing and refining

Dialouge

Focused on collaborating, understanding and exploring ideas; open, respectful and cooperative

Debate

focuses on proving a point, winning an arguement, or persuading others; competitive, assertive, and sometimes confrontational

Discrimination

Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group. BEHAVIOR

Prejudice

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience. ATTITUDE

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Scapegoat Theory

prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Other-race effect

tendency to recognize your own race more accurately

peripheral route persuasion

attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues

central route persuasion

attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Reciprocity norm

expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Social Responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

Conflict

A struggle between opposing forces

Mirror-image perception

mutual views often held by conflicting people

self-fulfilling prophecies

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation