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Nature vs. Nurture
Debate about the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to development.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity:
Debate on whether development is gradual or occurs in distinct stages.
Critical Period
A specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned.
Attachment
Emotional bond between a child and caregiver.
Secure attachment
children who show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are able to compose themselves quickly when the caregiver returns.
avoidant attachment
when an infant or child does not consistently receive the care and attention that they need to develop a healthy relationship with their parent or caregiver.
Harlow’s Monkey Experiment:
Importance of contact comfort.
Trust vs. Mistrust:
Infants develop trust when their needs are consistently met.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development:
A theory that suggests individuals go through eight stages, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved.
Gender Identity:
One's sense of being male, female, or another gender
Gender Roles
Social expectations about how males and females should behave.
Social Learning Theory:
The theory that children learn gender roles by observing and imitating others.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR):
The unlearned response to the UCS.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a learned response.
Conditioned Response (CR):
The learned response to the CS.
Generalization
Responding to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
Discrimination
the ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and the other stimulus
Operant Conditioning (Skinner):
A form of learning where behaviors are strengthened or weakened by consequences (reinforcements or punishments).
Positive Reinforcement:
Adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement:
Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior.
Punishment:
A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Positive Punishment:
Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior.
Negative Punishment:
Removing something pleasant to decrease a behavior.
Fixed Ratio:
Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
Variable Ratio:
Reinforcement after a random number of responses.
Fixed Interval:
reinforcement after a set amount of time
Variable Interval:
Reinforcement after a random amount of time.
Observational Learning (Bandura):
Learning by observing others and imitating their behaviors.
Modeling:
The process of demonstrating a behavior for others to imitate.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but isn’t immediately demonstrated until there’s an incentive to do so.
Social Learning Theory:
The theory that people learn from observing others and the consequences of their actions, rather than through direct reinforcement.
Intrinsic Motivation:
Performing an activity for its own sake, because it is inherently rewarding.
Extrinsic Motivation:
Performing an activity to earn a reward or avoid a punishment.
Habituation
The diminishing of a response to a repeated stimulus over time.
