KIN 132 Quiz 1: CV 1-4

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3 CV components to focus on in course

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3 CV components to focus on in course

  • Heart - pump, driving force

  • Blood vessels (vascular system) - passageways, circulation

  • Blood - fluid connective tissue, medium

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How much blood is in your body?

  • around 8% of body weight

  • around 5 litres of blood volume

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2 components of blood by volume

  • plasma

  • cellular elements

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Components of plasma

  • water

  • proteins

  • other solutes

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Cellular elements of blood

  • eythrocytes - red blood cells

  • leukocytes - white blood cells

  • thrombocytes - platelets

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Eythrocytes

red blood cells

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Leukocytes

white blood cells

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Thrombocytes

platelets

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How much water is in plasma?

Over 90%, it is the fluid portion

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Where are plasma proteins produced?

in the liver

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Solutes in plasma

  • electrolytes (socium, postassium, chloride, etc.)

  • nutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals)

  • wastes (urea, creatinine, bilirubin)

  • gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide)

  • regulatory substances (hormones, enzymes)

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Fluid compartments (of blood?)

  • Extracellular fluid (outside cells)

  • Intercellular fuild (inside cells)

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Extracellular fluid

  • outside cells

  • plasma - outside cells in the blood

  • interstitial fluid - outside cells in tissues

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Intracellular fluid

  • inside cells

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Compartment shifts

under certain conditions fluids get exchanges between compartments.

  • plasma fluid can move to interstital

  • intracellular can move to extracellular

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What does plasma do?

delivers things where needed (e.g. carbs) and removing things that are waste (e.g. breathing out Co2)

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Where are blood cells formed?

inside red bone marrow

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Which cell can form all mature blood cell lines

pluripotent hematopic stem cell

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myeloid stem cells

can form a range of mature blood cells lines

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Lymphoid stem cells

can form lymphocytes only

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precursor cells (blast cells)

committed to forming a particular mature blood cell line

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thrombocyte

A thrombocyte, also known as a platelet, is a small, irregularly shaped cell fragment found in the blood. Its main function is to aid in blood clotting, preventing excessive bleeding. Thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow and play a crucial role in hemostasis, the process of stopping bleeding from damaged blood vessels.

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precursor cells

Cells that have the potential to develop into different types of specialized cells in the body. They are early-stage cells that can undergo differentiation to become specific cell types, such as blood cells, nerve cells, or muscle cells. Precursor cells play a crucial role in tissue repair, regeneration, and growth.

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blood precursor cells

proerythroblast, megakaryoblast

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Thrombocytes

Small, cell fragments in the blood responsible for clotting. They help to prevent excessive bleeding by forming blood clots at the site of injury. Also known as platelets.

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Flashcard: Thrombopoiesis

Process of platelet production in the bone marrow. Involves differentiation of megakaryocytes, which release platelets into the bloodstream. Essential for blood clotting and hemostasis.

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What does a myeloid stem cell lead to?

megakaryoblast which forms a large megakaryocyte

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Platelets

pieces of megakaryocyte that break off as cell fragments

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Does a platelet have a nucleus?

No

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How long do platelets live?

5-9 days

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What do the vesicles in a platelet do?

transport a substance or substances

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Why are platelets important to homeostasis?

Responses to stop blood loss (opposite of hemorrhage)

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3 steps in platelet role in hemostasis

  1. Platelet adhesion

  2. Platelet activation

  3. Platelet aggregation

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Platelet adhesion

Platelets contact and stick to exposed collagen fibres at damage site using von Willebrand factor secreted by damaged endothelium and platelets (forms bridge).

Platelets adhere to damage site; form a bridge

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von Willebrand factor

  • Essential blood protein

  • Helps platelets stick to damaged blood vessels

  • Facilitates blood clot formation

  • Promotes hemostasis (blood clotting)

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Platelet activation

Adhesion triggers platelets to release vehicle contents into the blood including:

  • Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and serotonin - trigger activation of local platelets (multiple changes in shape, metabolism, and surface proteins)

  • synethsis and release into blood of thromboxane A2 - trigger activation and attraction of circulating platelets to damage site

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Platelet aggregation

  • activation changes make platelets sticky to one another, forming an accumulating mass (platelet plug)

  • prostacyclin (PGI2), and nitric oxide (NO) release from healthy endothelium prevent platelet steps

  • Keeps in check size and spread of platelet plug (local at damage site)

  • Aspirin - blocks steps in platelet plug formation

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Blood coagulation/blood clotting

conversion of blood to solid state; forms around initial platelet plug location

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The 2 forces that are balanced in blood clotting

procoagulant, anticoagulant

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procoagulant

the force in blood clotting that promotes clotting

  • damage site starts a clotting cascase (clotting factor activations) and calcium release / leads to circulating fibrinogen (inactive) being converted into fibrin (active) which forms a mesh network at damage site.

  • material (blood cells, platelets, proteins) becomes trapped in mesh/material plus mesh network forms clot

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What force involves a clotting cascade?

Procoagulant

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anticoagulant

opposes clotting

  • secretion: tissue factor pathway inhibitor, antithrombin III / activation: protein C / drugs: heparin, warfarin

    • these all inactive clotting factors blocking steps in clotting cascade

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When does dissolving clots happen?

once the repair is done, or if clot forms at an inappropriate location

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How clots are dissolved

  • activate fibrinolysis (clot dissolving)

    • plasminogen (inactive) incorporated into clot as formed

    • release of a plasminogen activator by endothelial cells converts plasminogen (inactive) to plasmin (active) dissolve clot

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Intravascular Clots

Blood clots that form inside blood vessels, obstructing blood flow. Can lead to serious complications like heart attacks or strokes.

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2 types of intravascular clots

thrombus, embolus

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thrombus

blood clot attached to inner vessel wall

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embolus

free floating clot; often small piece of thrombus that has broken free

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fibrinolysis

clot dissolving process

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Steps in fibrinolysis

plasminogen (inactive) is incorporated into clot as formed, release of a plasminogen activator by endothelial cells converts plasminogen (inactive) to plasmin (active) to dissolve clot

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What risk does intravascular clots create?

occlusion - blockage of blood vessel

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intravascular clot of the coronary blood vessel

myocardial infraction (heart attack)

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intravascular clot of the cerebral or cerebellar blood vessels

stroke

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intravascular clot: deep vein thrombosis

especially problematic for legs; long periods of sitting (air travel concern)

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atherosclerosis

  • plaque (fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular waste, etc.) forms on inner artery wall.

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occlusion risk

plaques often rupture, triggering a thrombus to form at site or can lead to a piece breaking away as an embolus/cycle of repeated plaque rupture - clot growth can be rapid.

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erythrocyte

  • Definition: Blood cell responsible for carrying oxygen to the body's tissues.

  • Key facts: Also known as red blood cells. Contains hemoglobin, giving it its red color.

  • Function: Transports oxygen from the lungs to cells and removes carbon dioxide.

  • Structure: Biconcave disc shape, lacks a nucleus.

  • Abundance: Most abundant type of blood cell in the body.

  • Disorders: Anemia, sickle cell disease, and polycythemia affect erythrocytes.

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How long do erythrocytes live?

around 120 days

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shape of erythrocytes

biconcave disc - quite flexible; high surface to volume ratio.

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Organells in a erythrocyte

no nucleus or other organelles

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hemoglobin (hb)

Protein found in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and transports carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation.

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Hemoglobin structure

4 globin chains (2 alpha / 2 beta)

4 hemes (each with iron ion in core)

<p>4 globin chains (2 alpha / 2 beta)</p><p>4 hemes (each with iron ion in core)</p>
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Flashcard: "Heme Binding"

Process where heme molecule attaches to a protein. Allows proteins like hemoglobin to transport oxygen in the body.

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oxygen heme binding

oxyhemoglobin

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carbon monoxide heme binding

carboxyhemoglobin

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globin binding - carbon dioxide

carbaminohemoglobin

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globin binding - hydrogen

deoxyhemoglobin

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erythropoiesis

Process by which red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow.

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How long does erythropoiesis take?

15 days

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homeostasis

The ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions. It involves processes like temperature regulation, pH balance, and blood sugar control.

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The steps in homeostasis

  1. stimulus (disruption)

  2. controlled variable → controlled variable is monitored by…

  3. receptor → receptors send action potentials/chemical signals to…

  4. control center → that recieves the input and porvides action potentials or chemical signals to…

  5. effectors → that bring about a change or…

  6. response → that alters the controlled variable

then return to homeostasis when the response bring the controlled variable back to normal

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in erythropoiesis, what is the stimulus?

decrease in oxygen level, aka hypoxia

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in erythropoiesis, what is the controlled variable?

the oxygen level; when hypoxia occurs, oxygen delivery to kidneys and other tissues is detected

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in erythropoesis, what is the receptor(s)?

the kidney cells; detect low oxygen levels, and increase erythropoietin (EPO) secretion into the blood

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in erythropoiesis, what is the control center?

the red bone marrow; myeloid stem cells in the red bone marrow turn into proerythoblasts, which turn into reticulocytes that then enter into the circulating bloodstream.

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in erythropoiesis, what are the effectors?

the increase in erythrocytes (red blood cells) in the bloodstream/circulation. This happens because the Reticulocytes mature into erythrocytes in the bloodstream.

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in erythropoiesis, what is the response?

increased oxygen being carried around the body/being delivered to tissues. This increased oxygen carrying capacity counters the initial hypoxia. More erythrocytes leads to more Hb to bind oxygen, which leads to greater oxygen delivery.

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negative feedback (in homeostasis)

the move in the opposite direction to the initial change.

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How are erythrocytes removed?

Spleen and liver filter blood and have macrophages (type of leukocyte) that engulf old or damaged erythrocytes.

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what does processing of old and/or damaged erythrocytes result in?

heme and globin portions of Hb are split

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what is the globin in old erythrocytes broken down into?

amino acids - released and used for protein synthesis

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what happens to old iron from old erythrocytes?

transferred to liver and then red bone marrow, recycled to incorporate into new Hb

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What is the heme in old erythrocytes converted into?

bilirubin, sent to liver, released into small intestine as part of bile for fat digestion - large intestine bacteria process bilirubin and products end up in urine and feces for elimination.

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How does increased oxygen carrying capacity in the blood affect performance?

enhances performance

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Altitude training

environmental

  • creates hypoxia - erythrocyte production

  • return to sea level for competition with elevated erythrocyte level

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Blood doping (reinfusion)

  • remove erythrocytes and store them

  • creates hypoxia - erythrocyte production

  • after time, erythrocytes return to normal levels

  • before competition, reinfuse stored erythrocytes to get elevated erythrocyte level

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Blood doping - inject EPO

  • directly stimulate erythrocyte production in red bone marrow

  • bypass kidney steps so hypoxia not needed.

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Hematocrit (Hct)

the percentage by volume of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in your blood

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How to view hematocrit

  • spin blood sample (BV; blood volume) in a centrifuge to seperate into:

    • plasma volume (PV)

    • “buffy coat” volume: leukocytes/platelets (quite small and usually ignored in Hct determination)

    • erythrocyte (RBC; red blood cells) volume

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Hct (hematocrit) formula

RBC/BV

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Average percentage of blood volume that is RBC (erythrocytes)

42-47%

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Hematocrit (Hct) for anemia

  • same blood volume

  • reduced RBC, Hct. (30%)

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What is observed in the blood with anemia?

lower oxygen carrying capacity

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Sources of anemia

  • hemorrhagic - blood loss (wounds/ulcers/menstruation)

  • nutritional - lack elements for erythrocyte formation (iron-deficient; low iron levels).

  • developmental - damage in critical area (aplastic; red bone marrow).

  • hemolytic - erythrocytes destroyed (sickle-cell)

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result of anemia

can lead to hypoxia issues

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Hematocrit (Hct): polycythemia

  • same blood volume

  • increased RBC, Hct (70%)

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What is observed in the blood in polycythemia?

higher oxygen carrying capacity

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source of primary polycythemia

bone marrow tumor

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source of secondary polycythemia

some altitude living cultures (e.g. Nepal), compensation for heart and lung disease

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source of induced polycythemia

athletics

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