everything so far

Bony thorax

Protective framework of the thoracic cage: sternum, clavicles, scapulae, 12 pairs of ribs, and 12 thoracic vertebrae.

Sternum

Flat bone in the center of the chest; parts include manubrium, body, and xiphoid process.

Manubrium

Upper part of the sternum, articulating with clavicles and first pair of ribs.

Body (of sternum)

Central portion of the sternum, between manubrium and xiphoid process.

Xiphoid process

Small, inferior projection at the end of the sternum.

Clavicle

Collarbone; long bone articulating with sternum and scapula, forming the anterior thoracic cage.

Scapula

Shoulder blade; flat bone on the posterior thorax providing muscle attachment points.

Ribs

Twelve pairs of curved bones forming the protective cage around lungs and heart.

Thoracic vertebrae

The twelve vertebrae (T1–T12) forming the posterior thoracic skeleton and attaching to the ribs.

Respiratory system

System for gas exchange between air and blood; consists of pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

what structures are included in the respiratory system?

• pharynx

• trachea

• bronchi

• lungs

Pharynx

Muscular tube for air and food; divisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.

Nasopharynx

Upper part of the pharynx, behind the nasal cavity.

Oropharynx

Middle part of the pharynx, behind the oral cavity.

Laryngopharynx

Lower part of the pharynx, directing air to larynx and food to esophagus.

Trachea

Windpipe; airway conducting air to bronchi; reinforced by C-shaped cartilaginous rings.

Carina

Cartilaginous ridge at the tracheal bifurcation into right and left main bronchi (around T5).

Bronchi

Main airways branching from the trachea into the lungs; include right and left primary bronchi.

Right primary bronchus

Shorter, more vertical main bronchus supplying the right lung.

Left primary bronchus

Longer, more horizontal main bronchus supplying the left lung.

Secondary bronchi

Lobar bronchi; airways branching from primary bronchi to each lung lobe.

Alveoli

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

Terminal bronchioles

Final sterile branches of the bronchial tree leading to alveolar sacs.

Larynx

Voice box; airway containing vocal cords, pivotal in breathing, swallowing, and speaking.

Epiglottis

Leaf-shaped flap covering the laryngeal inlet during swallowing to prevent food entry.

Thyroid cartilage

Adam’s apple; ring-shaped cartilage forming the bulk of the laryngeal skeleton.

Cricoid cartilage

Ring-shaped cartilage below the thyroid cartilage, completing the laryngeal skeleton.

Hyoid bone

U-shaped bone in the neck; provides attachment for tongue and neck muscles; free-floating.

Larynx (voice box)

Cartilaginous structure housing vocal cords; located above the trachea.

Pulmonary/visceral pleura

Innermost layer of the pleura, covering the lungs themselves.

Parietal pleura

Outer layer of the pleura, lining the chest wall, diaphragm, and mediastinum.

Pleural cavity

Potential space between visceral and parietal pleura, containing lubricating fluid.

Pneumothorax

Air in the pleural cavity causing lung collapse.

Hemothorax

Accumulation of blood in the pleural cavity.

Pleurisy

Inflammation of the pleura, often causing sharp chest pain during breathing.

Mediastinum

Central compartment of the thoracic cavity between the lungs; contains trachea, esophagus, thymus, heart, and great vessels.

what organs are included in the mediastinum?

• trachea

• esophagus

• thymus

• heart

• great vessels

Thymus gland

Lymphoid organ in the mediastinum, important in immune development; prominent in children.

Heart

Muscular organ pumping blood through the body; located in the mediastinum.

Great vessels

Major arteries and veins entering/leaving the heart (e.g., aorta and venae cavae).

Arch of the aorta

Curved portion of the aorta over the heart, giving off major branches.

Ascending aorta

Section of the aorta rising from the heart before it arches backward.

Descending aorta

Section of the aorta continuing downward through the thorax.

Abdominal aorta

Continuation of the aorta after passing through the diaphragm into the abdomen.

Lung lobes

Right lung has three lobes (upper, middle, lower); left lung has two lobes (upper and lower).

how many lobes does the right lung have?

three: upper , middle , lower

how many lobes does the left lung have?

two: upper and lower

Fissures (lung separations)

Oblique fissure and, in the right lung, horizontal fissure dividing the lungs into lobes.

Vertebra prominens (C7)

Prominent spinous process at the seventh cervical vertebra, used as a radiographic landmark.

Jugular notch (suprasternal notch)

Palpable notch at the superior border of the manubrium; useful chest landmark.

Topographic landmarks

External reference points (e.g., C7, jugular notch) used to position chest radiographs.

PA chest projection

Posteroanterior radiographic view of the chest; heart and mediastinal structures appear smaller.

AP chest projection

Anteroposterior chest radiograph; may enlarge cardiac silhouette compared with PA view.

Lateral chest projection

Radiographic view from the side; shows true spatial relationships and posterior aspects of lungs/heart.

AP lordotic projection

AP chest view with patient leaning back to project clavicles above lungs; assesses apical regions.

Decubitus positions

Chest radiographs taken with patient lying on one side to show air or fluid levels.

Chin extension

Positioning cue in PA chest radiographs to reduce chin interference and obscure airway shadows.

Collimation

Restriction of the X-ray beam to the area of interest to minimize exposure and improve image quality.

Lead shielding/backscatter protection

Use of shields to protect organs from unnecessary radiation and minimize backscatter exposure.

Exposure factors

Technical settings (kVp, mA, exposure time) to optimize image quality; chest often uses high kVp.

kVp (kilovoltage peak)

Voltage controlling X-ray beam energy; higher kVp improves penetration for chest radiographs.

mA (milliampere)

Current controlling the number of X-ray photons produced; affects image brightness.

SID (source-to-image distance)

Distance from X-ray source to image receptor; standard chest exams often use 72 inches.

Situs inversus

Condition where major visceral organs are mirrored from normal positions; relevant for labeling.

Topographic land marks for PA chest

vertebra prominens & jugular notch

Breathing instructions

big breath in, blow it all the way out, another big breath in and hold it, you can breath

Inspiration vs. expiration

Inspiration enlarges thoracic cavity and lungs; expiration reduces lung volume and changes diaphragmatic position.

Evaluation criteria (image quality)

full inspiration, no rotation, scapulae removed, proper collimation.

Pigg-O-Stat

Immobilization device for pediatric chest radiographs to minimize movement.

Aperture projections and special views

Additional chest positions (AP supine, AP lordotic, lateral decubitus) for specific clinical indications.

KUB (Kidney-Ureter-Bladder)

A radiographic view of the abdomen used to evaluate abdominal and urinary structures; may not show all structures, but helps visualize soft tissues and can indicate exposure quality (e.g., borders of psoas major muscles).

Psoas major

A large muscle of the posterior abdominal wall; its borders are visible on a properly exposed KUB and serve as a radiographic exposure indicator.

Stomach

An organ of the digestive tract located in the left upper quadrant (LUQ).

Duodenum

The first and shortest portion of the small intestine; about 10 inches long and the widest part, receiving bile and pancreatic ducts.

Jejunum

The middle portion of the small intestine; makes up about two-fifths of the small intestine and is a major site of nutrient absorption.

Ileum

The final portion of the small intestine; makes up about three-fifths of the small intestine and ends at the ileocecal valve.

Ileocecal valve

The valve between the ileum and the cecum that regulates the flow of intestinal contents into the large intestine.

Liver

A large organ in the right upper quadrant (RUQ) that produces bile.

Gallbladder

A small organ located inferior to the liver that stores and concentrates bile and releases it as needed.

Pancreas

A retroperitoneal gland located posterior to the stomach; produces pancreatic juices and insulin.

Spleen

A lymphatic-system organ located in the LUQ, posterior to the stomach.

Appendix (vermiform)

A narrow tube extending from the cecum; its exact function is not clearly known.

Cecum

The beginning section of the large intestine that connects to the ileum.

Ascending colon

The portion of the large intestine that travels upward on the right side of the abdomen.

Transverse colon

The section of the large intestine that extends horizontally across the abdomen.

Descending colon

The portion of the large intestine that travels downward on the left side.

Sigmoid colon

The S-shaped part of the large intestine leading to the rectum.

Rectum

The final section of the large intestine that ends at the anal canal.

Right colic (hepatic) flexure

The bend where the ascending colon meets the transverse colon on the right side.

Left colic (splenic) flexure

The bend where the transverse colon meets the descending colon near the spleen.

Abdominal quadrants

Four regions (RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ) used to localize organs and pathology within the abdomen.

Nine abdominal regions

A grid of regions: Right hypochondriac, Epigastric, Left hypochondriac, Right lumbar, Umbilical, Left lumbar, Right iliac (inguinal), Hypogastric, Left iliac (inguinal).

Xiphoid process

The lower end of the sternum; approximately at the T9–T10 level.

ASIS (anterior superior iliac spine)

A prominent bony landmark on the front of the pelvis used for imaging positioning and anatomy references.

Greater trochanter

A large prominence on the upper femur; a key bony landmark for imaging and level determination.

Inferior costal margin

The lower edge of the rib cage, typically around the 12th rib.

Symphysis pubis

The cartilaginous joint at the front of the pelvis where the two pubic bones meet.

Iliac crest

The superior border of the pelvis; a landmark used to estimate imaging levels (e.g., around L4–L5).

Ischial tuberosity

The sit bones at the lower, posterior aspect of the pelvis.

AP supine abdomen (KUB)

Anteroposterior view of the abdomen with the patient lying on their back; used in routine abdominal imaging.