AP Psych Final Review for AP Exam! [for the updated 2025 exam]
Section I: 75 MCQs [90 min] ~ 66.7%
Section II: 2 FRQs [70 min] ~ 33.3%
Unit 0: Science Practices
Psychology - The Scientific study of behavior and mental processes
The Scientific Attitude - a mindset that promotes the use of critical thinking
1) Curitosity; 2) Skepticsm; 3) humility
Structuralism - the first school of psychology
focused on introspection
Introspection - recognizing one’s own psychological processes, perceptions, and judgments
Functionalism - an early school of thought promoted by William James and influenced by Darwin
Explored how mental and behavioral processes function and how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Critical Thinking - thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
Epirical Approach - the idea that knowledge comes from experience
Observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge
Confirmation Bias - the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories
interpreting info to support your existing beliefs
only remembering details that uphold your beliefs
Hindsight Bias - the belief, after learning an outcome, that you foresaw it
“I knew it all along.”
Overconfidence - we think we know more than we do
Cultural Norms - the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to another
Hypothesis - a potential solution to the question, usually an if/then statement
testifiable prediction
Null-Hypothesis - no connection between variables
Likelihood (the null-hypothesis that is correct) is called the P-value or Probability Value
Probability Value - calculated by the size of the sample (larger sample, lower p-value || vice versa) and standard deviation (lower standard deviation, lower p-value || vice versa)
Falsifiable - a hypothesis is falsifiable if a study can be proven wrong
Experiment - study that manipulates one variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether there are effects on the second variable
the purpose of an experiment is to show causation
Independent variable - the factor being manipulated
Dependent variable - the outcome
the variable that may change due to independent variable manipulation
Confounding Variable - may influence the dependent variable
Operational Definition - explains HOW variables are measured
important because it 1) defines variables used in a study, 2) allows others to accurately replicate a study to see the reliability, and 3) ensures that psychologists consider their biases
Replication - the process of reproducing a study to see if the same results can be attained
crucial part of the research process that helps to improve the understanding of human behavior, or can verify a previous study
Population - the group a study is trying to understand
Random Sampling - from the population / means everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study
lottery, flip coin, random number generator
Convenience Sampling - when people are chosen based on their availability and willingness to participate
Representative Sampling - a subset of a population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the entire population
truly representative of the same = generalizability
Generalizability - the results can be applied to the whole population
Beyond the specific context of the study
Sampling Bias - when the sample is not representative of the population
Experimental Group - receives special treatment in an experiment
Control Group - does NOT experience special treatment
Placebo Group - control group that receives special treatment, but no effect
substance identical to the experimental group
Random Assignment - likelihood that all participants in a group or a sample have an equal chance of getting assigned to different conditions within an experiment
exp vs control vs placebo group
necessary component
Placebo Effect - when participants’ expectations lead them to experience some changes when they receive an empty or fake treatment
Sugar pill vs antidepressant (very interesting, I recommend looking it up and reading about it!)
Social Desirability Bias - when participants act or answer in a way they believe will be viewed favorably by others
Experimenter Bias - when researchers’ expectations can influence the result of the study
Single-Blind Study - ensures the participants don’t know if they are in the experimental or control group can limit social desirability bias
Double-Blind Study - when both research participants and staff are ignorant about whether the participants have received treatment or a placebo
helps prevent Social Desirability Bias and Experimenter Bias
Quantitative Research - provides depth and context to understand human behavior
structured interviews
Qualitative Research - measurable, generalizable data that can test theories and hypotheses
bar graph
Case Study - examines one individual or group in depth in the hopes of revealing things true to us all
Suggest directions for future studies
can be misleading with typical individuals
can be challenging because of subjectivity
Naturalistic Observation - the descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in natural situations without interference/manipulation
Survey - a descriptive technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a certain group
correlational research
ADVANTAGE: Look at cases in depth
DISADVANTAGE: tricky to get good results because of the particular wording
Self-Report Bias - may not always provide accurate answers
memory errors, misunderstanding of questions, lack of introspection, or intentional deception
Meta-Analysis - a statistical technique that combines and synthesizes the results of multiple individual studies on a particular topic
identifies patters
study of studies
Directionality Problem - when it is unclear which variable is the cause and which is the effect
difficult to determine the direction of the causal relationship
Third Variable Problem - when an unmeasured 3rd variable influences both of the correlated variables
Statistics - Practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large quantities
Descriptive Statistics - numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups
Mode - most frequently occurring scores
Mean - the average
Median - score in the middle
Standard Deviation - a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Range - the difference between the highest and lowest scores
Percentile Rank - the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score
If you are in the 79th percentile, your score is higher than 79% of competitors
Normal Curve - shape of an important class of probabilities
68-95-99.7 Rule
[image best viewed in light mode]
Skewed Distribution - a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Bimodal Distribution - when there are two distinct peaks in a distribution
two different modes
Regression Toward the Mean - a statistical phenomenon that refers to the tendency of extreme observations (outliers) on one measurement to be closer to the average on a subsequent measurement
Correlation - shows a connection and helps us predict
Correlation Coefficient - a statistical index of the relationship between two things
the closer it gets to -1 or +1, the stronger the correlation
the closer it gets to 0, the weaker the correlation
Scatterplot - a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the value of two variables
Histogram - bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Illusory Correlation - perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship
We believe there is a relationship, we are likely to notice instances that confirm our beliefs
EX: chilly/wet weather gives you a cold
Inferential Statistics - numerical data that allows one to generalize
to infer from sample data
the probability of something being true for a population
Statistical Significance - a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
if the p-value is low enough, then the results are statistically significant
The Psychological Perspectives
Biological - How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences
TLDR: behavior through the brain
Evolutionary - How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes
TLDR: genetic adaptation
Cognitive - How we mentally encode, process, store, and retrieve information
TLDR: How we think about our experiences
Humanistic - How we achieve personal growth and self-fulfillment
TLDR: Self-Fulfillment
Psychodynamic - How behavior springs from unconscious needs, desires, conflicts, and memories
TLDR: Unconscious needs and desires
Behavioral - How we learn; observable responses
TLDR: Learned rewards and punishments
Sociocultural- How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
TLDR: Cultural differences
Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior
Nature v. Nurture - a longstanding controversy over whether you are the way you are due to upbringing or genes
Evolutionary Perspective - study of the evolution of behavior and the mind
using principles of natural selection
Natural Selection - the driving force behind evolution
How the environment ‘selects’ the fittest organisms
Behavior Genetics - study out differences and weigh the effects and interplay of heredity and environment
can include how mutations may affect individuals
Mutation - random errors in gene replication that lead to a change
Heredity - genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
Genes - the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes
Segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
Genomes - the complete instructions for making an organism
consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes
Identical Twins - developed from a single fertilized egg that splits into two
Creating two genetically identical organisms
Fraternal Twins - develop from separate fertilized eggs
They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they share a prenatal environment
Gene-Environment Interaction - how genes and the environment influence one another
How malnutrition during childhood influences a person’s genes
permanently changed
Epigenetics - the study of how environmental changes like childhood experiences can affect the expression of genes
can be changed
Eugenics - promoting reproduction for the highly intelligent and potential sterilization for those with ‘less desirable traits’
Nervous System
The Nervous System - the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network
consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
Peripheral Nervous System - the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
TLDR: sensory and motor
Central Nervous System - brain and spinal cord
Somatic (Voluntary) - the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
Also called the skeletal nervous system
EX: reading and getting the hand ready to turn the page, and then turning it
Autonomic (involuntary) - the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs
heart rate, digestion, respiration rate
Contains Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
Sympathetic Division - the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body
mobilizing its energy
EX: thinking // fight or flight
TLDR: thinking and arousal
Parasympathetic Division - the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body
conserving its energy
EX: eating // undoes the work of the sympathetic division after a stressful situation
TLDR: Eating and Calming
Neurons
Neurons - a nerve cell
the basic building block of the nervous system
Gial Cells - cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
This plays a leading role in learning, thinking, and memory
TLDR: Glue cells
Cell Body (soma) - contains nucleus
cell’s life support center
Dendrites - receive and integrate messages
conducting impulses towards the cell body
Axon - neuron extension that passes messages through branches to other neurons or muscular glands
Terminal Buttons (Axon Terminal) - form junctions with other cells
Myelin Sheath - enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
it deteriorates
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons - messages from sense organs to the CNS system
EX: water is hot
Motor (Efferent) Neurons - carry messages from the CNS to muscles and glands.
EX: Move your hand
Interneurons - carry messages between nerve cells, mainly in the brain and spinal cord
Synapse - the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap
Reuptake - Remaining neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap are absorbed back into the sending neuron
All-or-Nothing Principle - either the axon ‘fires’ or it doesn’t
Almost immediately, cells’ ion pumps flush out positively charged ions and restore neurons
Depolarization - term used to describe the loss of he inside or outside charge difference
Action Potential - The neural impulse created when a neuron ‘fires'.
the impulse travels from the dendrites down the axon to the axon terminals
Refractory Period - The brief instant when a new action potential cannot be generated because the neuron is ‘recharging’ after the previous action potential
Resting Potential - The state of a neuron when it is ‘charged’ but waiting for the next action potential to be generated
Fluid outside of an axon has mostly positively charged ions, while a resting axon’s fluid (intracellular fluid) is more negatively charged.
Threshold - the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Multiple Sclerosis - a chronic disease in which communication between muscles and brain regions slows, causing low muscle control and sometimes impaired cognition
Causes: Deterioration of the Myelin Sheath
Myasthenia gravis - a disease that causes symptoms such as muscle weakness, eyelid drooping, and difficulty swallowing or breathing
Reflex Arc - neural pathway that controls a reflex (invouluntary response to a stimulus)
evolutionary adaptation that allows for faster action by activating spinal motor neurons instead of waiting for signals to reach the brain
Neurotransmitters
Excitatory Neurotransmitters - arousing
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters - block / prevent the chemical message from being passed any further
Dopamine - influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion/reward
Oversupply: mental illness/schizophrenia
Undersupply: Parkinson’s, addictions
Serotonin - affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
Oversupply: anxiety, happiness
Undersupply: depression
Norepinephrine - helps control alertness and arousal
Contributes to the sympathetic nervous system in the ‘fight or flight’ response
Glutamate - a major excitatory neurotransmitter
involved in memory
Oversupply: migraine/seizures
Undersupply: tremors/seizures
GABA - major inhibitory neurotransmitter
helps control stress in the body
Undersupply: anxiety disorders
Oversupply: not enough brain activity
Endorphins - a neurotransmitter that influences the perception of pain or pleasure
Oversupply: feel no pain
Undersupply: aches/pains
Substance P - a neuropeptide that acts as a neurotransmitter
essential in pain perception and immune responses
Regulates metabolism and fracture healing
mediating pain, touch, and temperature
Acetylcholine (ACh) - enables muscle actions, learning, and memory
motor control
Myasthenia gravis
Endocrine System
Endocrine System - the body’s chemical communication system that helps regulate growth, reproduction, metabolism, and behavior
Pituitary Gland - The endocrine system’s most influential gland
Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
Oxytocin - often called the ‘love hormone’
associated with bonding, social interaction, and childbirth
Adrenaline - the adrenal gland’s active adrenaline
activated by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system in moments of danger
Leptin - signals that you are full and less interested in food
Ghrelin - hunger hormone
produced in the stomach and signals the brain to eat
Melatonin - signals sleepiness
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive Drugs - chemicals that change perceptions
Agonists - a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
occupies receptors and activates them
TLDR: mimics
Antagonists - a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
block receptor activation by agonists
TLDR:TLDR: blocks
Reuptake Inhibitors - Stop/delay the body from reabsorbing serotonin
Stimulants - drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
EX: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy
increase in heart rate, breathing, and blood sugar, and a decrease in appetite/energy
Depressants - drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body function
EX: alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates
associated with many neurotransmitters, but mainly GABA
Hallucinogens - psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
similar to opiates
THC blocks a receptor that blocks GABA, but nothing tells the brain to stop
Opioids - severely depress neural activity and temporarily lessen pain
can stop the brain from producing endorphins
EX: opium, morphine, and heroin
Tolerance - the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug
requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
Withdrawal - the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior
physical pain and cravings
Dependence - the feeling of need to use a drug
physical or biological
Addiction - compulsive drug craving and use despite adverse consequences
The Brain
Biological Psychology - the study of links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
Biopsychosocial Approach - an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and socio-cultural levels of analysis
Neuroplasticity - the brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Neural Measures
EEG (Electroencephalogram) - amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface
These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
PET (positron emission tomography) - a visual display of brain activity that detects where the radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MEG (magnetoencephalography) - a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity
CT (Computed tomography) - a series of X-ray photos taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) - a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissues
shows brain anatomy
fMRI (functional MRI) - a technique for revealing blood flow and therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans
brain function/structure
Hindbrain
Hindbrain - the most primitive part of the brain
consists of 3 structures:
the medulla
pons
cerebellum
Medulla - regulates breathing and heart rate
operates without our conscious awareness
Pons - helps coordinate movement and regulates the brain during the sleep cycle.
Cerebellum - controls balance and the complex movements we perform without consciously thinking about it.
Midbrain
Midbrain - the topmost most of the brainstem
the connection center between the brain and the spinal cord
Reticular Formation - a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus
plays an important role in controlling arousal
Forebrain
Forebrain - the largest part of the brain, encompassing structures like the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebellum
Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral Cortex - ultimate control and information processing center
thinking cap
Limbic System - neural system located mostly in the forebrain and is associated with emotions and drives
Includes:
thlamus
hypothalamus
pituitary gland
hippocampus
amygdala
Thalamus - relays messages between lower brain centers and the cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus - controls maintenance functions such as eating
helps govern the endocrine system
linked to emotion and reward
Pituitary Gland - the master endocrine gland
Hippocampus - linked to conscious memory
processes explicit memory
EX: removal = inability to form new memories, facts, or events
Amygdala - linked to emotion
helps us remember emotionally charged events
EX: removal = loses any sense of fear
Brainstem - the central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions
Corpus Callosum - axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
Split Brain
type of condition where there is a severance between the corpus callosum, splitting the two hemispheres
Structure of the Cortex
Frontal Lobe - generally controls linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive function.
Home to the motor cortex
Location: forehead area
Parietal Lobe - generally controls association areas (processes and organizes info) and the somatosensory cortex
processes touch sensitivity
Location: Back crown
Temporal Lobe - generally controls auditory and linguistic processing and stores long-term memories.
Location: on the sides, near the ears
Occipital Lobe - visual information processing
Location: rear of the brain
Somatosensory Cortex - an area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes bodily touch and movement sensations
Motor Cortex - Controls skeletal muscle movements
Broca’s Area - production of speech
Left hemisphere
Wernicke’s Area - understanding speech and writing, control of the sequence of movements, memory for words/numbers, and positive emotions
Left hemisphere
Association Areas - regions of the cerebral cortex throughout the four lobes that are responsible for higher mental functions
seem to connect parts to allow it to perform “higher” functions
Neurogenesis - creation of neurons that happens mostly in prenatal stages and continues into childhood
Lateralization - look-alike hemispheres that serve different functions, the
right hemisphere controls the left side and vice versa
Both hemispheres work together to produce our thoughts/feelings
Sleep
Cognitive Neuroscience - the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition
including perception, thinking, memory, and language
Circadian Rhythm - regular body rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
wakefulness, temperature, etc
Waking Beta Waves - High frequency
conscious thought and logical thinking
Waking Alpha Waves - relatively slow brain waves
relaxed, awake state
NREM1- irregular brain waves
light sleep
may experience hallucinations
hypnagogic sensations, like falling or kicking
NREM2 - Sleep spindles/burst of rapid, rhythmic brain wave activity
easy to wake up, but definitely asleep
NREM3 (Delta Waves) - slow delta waves of brain activity
deep sleep
bed-wetting, sleep walking, sleep talking
REM - similar to being awake, in terms of brain activity
Rapid eye movement
Dream sleep
electrical activity in the brain
1st episode is around 10 mins, but increases over time
Sleep Cycle
NREM1
NREM2
NREM3
NREM2
REM
NREM2
NREM3
NREM2REM
repeats every 90 mins
SCN (Suprachiasmatic Nucleus)
a pair of neuron clusters in the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythm
Brain’a master clock, controlling daily cycles
signals the pineal gland to decrease melatonin
Sleep Deprivation - lack of sleep
Insomnia - problems falling asleep or staying asleep
Often has a psychological cause
Narcolepsy - uncontrollable sleep attacks
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder - The Body is not paralyzed during REM sleep
Sleep Apnea - cessations of breathing during sleep
Somnambulism - Sleepwalking
Dream Theories
Activation-Synthesis - to make sense of neural static
neural activity has to make sense, but are random event in the brain
Information Processing/Consolidation - to file away memories
learning and rehearsing the day’s events
Physiological Function - to develop and preserve neural pathways
REM sleep keeps our neural networks strong
Cognitive Development - to reflect cognitive development
we are just maturing and differentiating dreams that reflect our age
REM Rebound - natural response to sleep deprivation, stress, or drug withdrawal
more REM, vivid dreams, nightmares, headaches, feeling disoriented
Processing
Dual Processing - the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Parallel Processing - processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously
generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems
Sequential Processing - processing one aspect of a problem at a time
Generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems
Blindsight - a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously thinking about it
Sensation
Sensation - the reception of information from our sensory receptors
physical
Perception - the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
giving meaning
more psychological
Psychophysics - the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli
such as intensity and our psychological experience of them
Sensory receptors - Nerve endings that detect environmental stimuli and send information to the brain
part of sensory neurons
Transduction - converting sensory information into electrical impulses the brain understands
Absolute Threshold - the smallest detectable level of a stimulus
the level at which a stimulus is first detected 50% of the time
Below the absolute threshold is less than 50%
Signal Detection Theory - detection depends on a person’s experience, expectations, motivations, and alertness
Theory tries to predict when we will detect weak signals
When might you best see, hear, smell, etc
Subliminal - below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
meant to slip past your mental radar and embed itself deep into your subconscious mind
Priming - an invisible image or word can prime (unconsciously prepare) our responses to later questions
Difference Threshold (Just-Noticeable Difference) - the smallest recognizable and physical difference between two stimuli
Weber’s Law - the greater the magnitude of the stimulus, the larger the difference needed for it to be detected
Two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum %, not amount
Sensory Adaptation - Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
occurs in the body, and the stimulus is continuous
Sensory Interaction - when one sense can influence another
occurs when the brain has to process conflicting information from various sensory systems
Synesthesia - a neurological condition that causes people to experience more than one sense at the same time
Gate Control Theory - we have a “gate” in our spinal cord that can sometimes block incoming signals
In some cases, pain messages are minimized or even prevented from reaching the brain at all
Gustation - sense of taste
the sense is based on chemicals
smell + taste = flavour
can detect sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes without olfaction, but not subtle flavours
Olfaction - sense of smell
1) orders airborne chemical molecules to interact with receptors associated with specialized hairs in the nose
2) Stimulated nerve cells associated with these hairs convey information to the brain’s olfactory bulbs
Kinesthesis - how we sense our body movements
Vestibular Sense - balance
Sensory Interaction - how the senses interact so we can respond to stimuli
Embodied Cognition - an approach to cognition that has roots in motor behavior
Proprioception - body awareness
involved the vestibular sense and kinesthesis (sense of one’s body movement)
Receptors in muscles and joints
directional awareness
Vision
Cornea - The Eye’s clear, protective outer layer bends light into focus
Pupil - Adjustable center of the eye through which light enters
Iris - colored proportion of the eye around the pupil,
controls the size of the pupil
Lens - Structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Retina - the inner surface of the eye where transduction takes place
Fovea - the central focal point in the retina, in which visual acuity is the highest
allows us to drive, read, etc
sharpest vision
Optic Nerve - bipolar cells that send to the Ganglion cells
makes up the optic nerve
Blind spot
Blind spot - a point where the optic nerve leaves the eye
No receptor cells are located there
Color Processing
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory - Humans perceive color because the eye can receive light of 3 different wavelengths and combine them into the entire visible spectrum
Opponent-Process Theory - the brain avoids extremes of emotional experience by countering the stimulation it receives with an opposite (opponent) reaction
Feature Detectors - the process by which the nervous system sorts or filters complex natural stimuli
occipital lobe
identification
Hearing
Frequency - physical phenomenon
frequency determines pitch
Pitch - perpetual phenomenon
Eardrum - vibrates when sounds reach it
Semicircular Canals - helps maintain balance
Hammer and Anvil - pass vibrations along
Middle Ear - hammil, anvil, and stirrup
passing along vibrations
Cochlea - creates an impulse
transduction
Inner Ear - semicircular conals
helps maintain balance and detects head motion
Sound Localization - Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the others
Hearing Loss / Pitch
Sensorineural Hearing Loss - damage in auditory nerve or other higher processing centers
aging neurological
Conduction Hearing Loss - interference/interruption in which sound waves convert to nerve energy
allergies
Cochlear Implants - devices for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes in the cochlea
Place Theory - we hear different pitches because sound waves activate different places on the basilar membrane
where it lands
higher frequency
Frequency Theory - we hear different pitches because never impulses match frequency of a sound wave
lower frequency
Unit 2: Cognition
Perception and Processing
Perception - process or organizing and interpreting sensory information
giving meaning (psychological)
Bottom-Up Processing - Starts at sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing
Top-Down Processing - constructs perceptions from this sensory input by drawing on your experience and expectations
Attention and Perceptual Set
Selective Attention - focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
11,000,000 bits of info per second
We can only process about 40
Cocktail Party Effect - a type of selective attention, the ability to attend to one voice among other voices
Cognitive radar can bring an unattended voice to mind
EX: You hear your name being called
Inattentional Blindness - Failing to see visible objects when our attention is somewhere else
Change Blindness - failing to notice changes in the environment
Perceptual Set - your tendency to view things only in a certain way
can change what we see, feel, taste, and touch
This is determined by our schemas
concepts that organize information in our experience
Effect of Context on Perceptual Set - The environment or circumstances in which a stimulus occurs can significantly affect our interpretation of the stimulus
Effect of Motivation on Perceptual Set and Emotion - experience filters perception
Effect of Culture on Perceptual Set - Culture sets up the framework through which we interpret the sensory world
Binocular Depth Cues
Retinal Disparity - the slight difference in the images projected on the retinas of each eye due to their horizontal separation
Convergence - inward movement of eyes as they focus on a closer object
Monocular Depth Cues
Relative Clarity - objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects.
Texture Gradient - a gradual change from a coarse, distant texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance
Relative Size - the depth cue in which we perceive distance based on the composition of sizes between objects
Linear Perspective - a type of depth prompt that the human eye perceives when viewing two parallel lines that meet at a distance
Interposition - one object that is covered up may seem farther away.
Gestalt Psychology
Figure-Ground - how people distinguish an object (its figure) from its surrounding area (the ground)
Closure - if parts of a picture are missing, our minds fill in the gaps
Proximity - we perceive objects that are close to each other as being in a group
Similarly, we perceive elements that are similar in appearance to be connected or part of a whole
Perceptual Constancy - perceiving objects as unchanging, even when illumination and retinal images change
Apparent Motion - involved the general perception of movement when nothing is happening
Phi Phenomenon - a specific type of apparent movement where the illusion of movement arises from light flashing in a sequence
creates a perception of movement
Thinking
Concepts - mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, and people
Natural Concepts: understanding through direct observation and experience
Formal Concepts: formed by definition
Prototypes - mental images or the best example of a category
ideal example of any given concept
the closer something matches our prototype of a concept, the more readily we will accept it
Schema - basic units of intellect
frameworks that organize and interpret information
Assimilation - fitting new information into an existing schema
Accommodation - creating a new schema
or drastically changing the schema
Algorithms - a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristics - a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently.
Representative Heuristic - estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well the seem to represent or match particular prototypes
Availability Heuristic - estimating the likelihood of events based on their available memory
Decision-Making and Judgments
Insight - a sudden realization of a problem’s solution
Intuition - an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Fixation - inability to view problems from a new angle
Mental Set - a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way
Often, a way that has been successful in the past
Belief Perserverance - ignoring evidence that proves our beliefs are wrong
Priming and Framing - the way an issue is posed/worded can significantly change/affect ur decisions and judgements
Gambler’s Fallacy - the belief that the chances of something happening with a fixed probability become higher or lower as the process is repeated
Sunk-Cost Fallacy - our tendency to continue with an endeavor we have invested money, effort, or time into
Even if current costs outweigh the benefits
Executive Functions - management of cognitive processes, including working memory, reasoning, flexibility, and problem solving, as well as planning and execution
Creativity - the ability to innovate valuable ideas
Expertise: well developed knowledge
Imaginative Thinking Skills: see things in a new way
Venturesome Personality - Tolerance for ambiguity or risks
Intrinsic Motivation: internal motivation
Creative Environment: helps foster creativity
Convergent Thinking - narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
EX: how a little kid would react
Divergent Thinking - expanding the number of possible problem solutions
creative thinking that diverges in different directions
Functional Fixedness - A tendency to only think of an object’s most common use when presented with a problem
Encoding
Encoding - get information into our brain by selecting, identifying, and labeling memories to fit the preferred format for memory
Storage - retain the information
Retrieval - later get the information back from our brain
the recovery of information
Mnemonic Devices - a technique used to enhance memory and recall
Method of Loci - a mnemonic technique that works by placing an image of each item to be remembered at particular points along an imaginary journey through a location
Chunking - organizing items into familiar, manageable units
often occurs automatically
Categories - organizing information into meaningful groups
Hierarchies - systems where individuals or concepts are ranked one above another based on specific criteria
Spacing Effect - The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term memory
Massed Practice - can produce short-term learning and a feeling of confidence
cramming
Those who learn quickly forget quickly
Distributed Practice - produces better long-term memory
Serial Position Effect - the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best and the middle worst
Maintenance rehearsal - Repetition of a piece of information to keep it within your active, short-term memory
mnemonic, speech
Elaborative Rehearsal - A Technique used to help the short-term memory store thoughts or ideas and pass them into long-term memory
relating new concepts to old concepts that are already in long-term memory
Autobiographical Memory - the process of remembering personal experiences or events from our own lives
ability to retrieve specific details such as time, place, emotions, and sensory information associated with those memories
Retrograde Amnesia - the inability to recall memories from before the onset of the amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia - the inability to retain or learn new information
Infantile Amnesia - the inability of adults to recollect early episodic memories
associated with the rapid forgetting that occurs in childhood
Alzheimer’s Disease - a chronic brain disease that gradually erodes an individual’s memory, intellectual abilities, and personality
the most obvious symptom is the inability to learn and remember information
Retrieving Memories
Retrieval Cues - stimuli that assist in memory retrieval
EX: A test question may fail to cue memory because of its wording or context
Recall - you can access information without cues
Recognition - a type of memory retrieval in which one must identify present information as having been previously presented
Context-Dependent Memory - theory that suggests that information is optimally remembered when it is recalled in the same place in which it was initially learned
EX: taking an exam in the place where you learned the content
Mood-Congruent Memory - The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s good or bad mood
EX: if someone is upset, they might recall more negative events
State-Dependent Memory - A state in which the retrieval of recently obtained information may be possible if the subject exists in a similar physiological situation as during the period of the encoding stage
EX: Scuba divers recalling information underwater
Testing Effect - an enhancement in the long-term retention of information as a result of taking a memory test
repeatedly self-test
Metacognition - the ability to control and be aware of your thoughts
EX: realizing you know the answer to a test, but cannot think of the answer at that moment
monitoring and evaluating your learning
Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve - a graph that represents how memory decreases over time when there is no attempt to retain or retrieve the information
As rehearsal time increases, relearning time decreases
Encoding Failure - a breakdown in the process of getting information into the cognitive system
can occur because of inattention to the target information or interface when the target information is presented
Proactive Interference - occurs when old information or knowledge interferes with the learning of new information
EX: writing the date wrong during the first few months of the year,// confusion when using foreign currency
Retroactive Interference - when newly acquired information inhibits your ability to recall previously acquired information
EX: forgetting the address of your previous location because you moved,// forgetting the names of previous co-workers
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon - Occurs when someone cannot recall a specific word or term, but feels certain that they know it
the information is just out of reach
Repression - when unacceptable ideas, impulses, and memories are kept out the consciousness
Addressed more in later units
Misinformation Effect - occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information
asking leading questions
Source Amnesia - faulty memory for how, when, and where information was learned for images
Deja Vu
Memory Consolidation - memories become less susceptible to interference with time
Consolidation is based on rearrangements of the neural circuitry involved in memory
Imagination Inflation - people increase their confidence that an event happened after imagining the details of the event
First birthday recollection, actually just household photos
Intelligence and Achievement
G (general intelligence) - underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
According to Spearman and others
Multiple Intelligence - our abilities are classified into eight or nine independent intelligences
Includes a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts
Mental Age - the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age
Devised by Alfred Binet
Chronological Age - the actual amount of time a person has been alive
measured in years from birth to present
IQ (Intelligence Quotient) - ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100
IQ = (ma/ca)/100
Flynn Effect - the finding that IQ scores have been steadily surpassing previous generations
Psychological Assessments
Standardized - defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
Validity - the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to do
Construct - the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
Predictive - the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is trying to predict
Reliability - the extent to which a test yields consistent results
Test-Retest - a property exhibited by a test on which people get about the same scores when they take the test more than once
Split-Half - data collected is split randomly in half and then compared
to see if results taken from each part of a measure are similar
Achievement Tests - a test designed to assess what a person has learned
Aptitude Tests - a test designed to predict a person’s future performance
Aptitude is someone’s capacity to learn
Stereotype Threat - a self-fulfilling prophecy that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
Stereotype Lift - occurs when non-targets perform better than the stereotype
Heritability - The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes
Fixed Mindset - asserts that the brain and intelligence cannot change
Growth Mindset - belief that one’s ability and intellect can be developed through effort, learning, and perseverance
Memory
Explicit Memory - information that you have to consciously work to remember
Episodic Memory - explicit memory of personally experienced events
½ of our conscious memory system
Semantic Memory - explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
½ of our conscious memory system