Unit 4 AP Psychology

Scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Social Psychology

Mental processes associated with the ways in which people perceive and react to others

Social cognition

Process of explaining the causes of people’s behavior, including one’s own, either by crediting

1. The external situation: External factors

2. The person’s internal disposition: Personality or traits, internal factors

Attribution Theory

The tendency to attribute someone’s success to internal factors and one’s failures to external factors.

ie: If you get an A on the test, it is due to their hard work. If you get an F on the test, it is due to a bad teacher.

Actor-Observer bias

The tendency to over-attribute the behavior of others to internal factors such as personal disposition (personality traits).

Fundamental Attribution Error

A learned prejudgment, an unjustifiable negative attitude toward a group and its members—often of different cultural, ethnic, or gender groups

Prejudice

Speaking or behaving toward someone as if they are stupid or not important.

Patronizing

People with whom one shares a common identity “us”

Ingroup

Those perceived as different from one’s ingroup “them”

Outgroup

The tendency to favor one’s own group

Ingroup bias

When prejudice is an outlet for anger by proving someone to blame ie: Japanese internment camp after the attack on Pearl Harbor

Scapegoat Theory

Tendency to believe the world is just, and therefore people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Just-World Phenomenon

Tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races

Other-Race Effect

Beliefs and feelings that predispose our reactions to objects, people and events. Attitudes are made up of three things:

Cognitive- Set of beliefs about the attributes of an object

Affective-Feelings about the object

Behavioral-Way people act towards the object

Attitudes

Attitudes change when interested people focus on the scientific evidence/arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

Central Route of Persuasion

Attitudes change wgen people make snap judgements on incidental cues, like the attractiveness of a speaker

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

Tendency for people who agree to a small request to comply with a large one. TO get people to agree with something, you start small and build.

Foot in the door phenomenon

a persuasion tactic where someone first makes a large, unreasonable request that is likely to be rejected, then follows up with a smaller, more reasonable request, which the target person is then more likely to agree to

Door in the face phenomenon

Centers on the belief that we are driven to gain accurate self-evaluations, and that we gain accurate self evaluations by comparing ourselfs to others in order to reduce uncertainty in the areas we are self-evaluating

Social Comparison Theory

When people become aware of the inconsistencies between their attitudes and behaviors. When they do not, they experience unpleasant mental tension

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Socially defined patterns of behavior that are expected of persons in a given setting or group

Social Roles

A group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members’ attitudes and behaviors

Social Norms

Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to go along with a group standard

Conformity

The action of a person agreeing to do something when told to do so

Compliance

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

Obedience

1. Size of group

2. Status of group

3. Observation of group

4. Unanimity of group

Conditions that influence conformity

Want to avoid rejection or gain social approval. So, we accept the norms of the group

Normative Social Influence

The group may provide valuable information, we want to accept the opinions of others; especially when concerning tough decisions.

Informative Social Influence

Situations in which selfish behavior that benefits individuals in the short run may spell disaster for an entire group in the long run

Social Dilemmas

Refers to improved performance on a task in the presence of others

Social Facilitation

Negative influence of others, which leads to a decrease in performance due to a perception by the performer that the crowd or someone is judging them

Social Inhibition

Tendency for people in a group to exert less effort than when working individually

Social Loafing

Loss of self-awareness and self-constraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Deindividuation

Way of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in decision-making overrides the possible alternatives

Group Think

Range of behaviors that can result in both physical and psychological harm to yourself, others, or objects in the environment

Aggression

• Genetic Influences

• Neural Influences

• Biochemical influences

Biological Influences of Aggression

Exclusion from social or cultural groups

Ostracism

Exhibiting a behavior that can be learned or observed from another person

Modeling

A principle in which frustration creates anger, which can create aggression

Frustration-Aggression Principle

Arousal from one experience may carry over to an independent situation

Excitation Transfer

• Aversive events and people

• Stressful environments

• Social scripts

What Impacts Aggression

Positive feelings toward another person

Attraction

Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases one’s liking of that item

Mere-exposure effect

Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship

Proximity

Having similar views between individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen

Similarity

People tend to date, marry, or form other committed relationships with those who are similar in physical attractiveness

Matching Hypothesis

Under which circumstances people first meet also influences attraction

Circumstances

Usually present at the beginning of a love relationship, an aroused state of intense absorption in another

Passionate Love

Deep, affectionate intimate attachment, marked by a mutual concern for the welfare of the other. Less arousing but more psychologically intimate

Compassionate Love

When one receives what he/she gives to the relationship

Equity

Reveal intimate details about yourself

Self Disclosure

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Altruism

The decision to help another person is based on how much it will cost the person compared to how much it will help the person being helped

Social Exchange Theory

The expectation that we should return help not harm to those who have helped us

Reciprocity Norm

Largely learned, a norm that tells us to help others when they need us even though they may not repay us

Social Responsibility Norm

A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Sterotype Threat

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Self Fulfilling Prophecy

Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

Conflict

As we see our enemy as untrustworthy, and evil intentioned, they see us

Mirror Image Perception

Putting people with conflict with one another in a positive environment can reduce the conflict

Contact

1. Clarity for need of help

2. Presence of others

3. Personality of the helper

Factors of social exchange theory

An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Personality

a psychoanalytic technique where a patient openly shares whatever thoughts, feelings, or images come to mind without censoring them

Free Association

Freud’s method of therapy that revolves around using free association to bring past events that unconsciously affect you, so the events can be dealt with

Psychoanalysis

Symbolic meaning of dreams: what is in your unconscious mind

Latent content of dreams

Slip of the tongue that Freud believed were our true, unconscious thoughts surfacing

Freudian Slip

Unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, demanding immediate gratification

Id (Pleasure Principle)

The conscious executive that mediates the demands of the superego and ID, sense of self

Ego (Reality Principle)

The part of your personality that represents a person's internalized moral standards, acting as a conscience by judging behavior and striving for perfection

Superego (Moral Principle)

We avoid painful thoughts by forcing them into the back of our mind

Repression

We retreat to behaving or thinking like a child in order to avoid adult issues

Regression

Diverting sexual or aggressive impulses to a more acceptable person or object

Displacement

Feelings directed towards the self are displaced towards other people

Projection

We change unwanted desires on to prosocial activities in order to avoid undesirable activities

Sublimation

Make unacceptable impulses into their opposite, acceptable form

Reaction Formation

We try to create logical explanations of our behavior in order to justify it

Rationalization

We refuse to perceive “reality” in order to protect ourselves from it, reject a problem is real

Denial

An area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation

Erogenous Zones

ID is formed

Erogenous zone: Mouth

Problem: Weaning off breastfeeding, thumb, pacifiers, or bottles

Fixation: Biting nails, overeating, excessive gum chewing, smoking

Oral Stage (0-18 months)

Ego begins to form

Erogenous Zone: Anus

Problem: Toilet training, learning to control and clean themselves

Anal Stage: 18-36 months

Superego forms; Gender identity and awareness of difference between men and women

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Fixation: Fixation over looks, over ambitious

Phallic Stage: 3-6 years

Boy has unconscious desire for mom and jealousy/hatred for dad, fears punishment if father finds out about feelings

Oedipus Complex

Superego development

No erogenous zone

Dormant sexual feelings

Latent Period (6-puberty)

Errogenous zone: Genitals

Odeipal and Electra repressed feelings turns into an appropriate person.

Genital Stage

Continued Freud’s research, but disagreed on views of sexual focus, instead believed personality was more determined on social experiences

Non-Freudians

Believed in childhood tensions, however these tensions were social in nature and not sexual

Alfred Adler

Constant feelings of inadequacy or insecurity in your daily life due to a belief that you are physically or mentally inferior to others

Inferiority Complex

Believed in social aspects of childhood growth and development, children were trying to overcome a sense of helplessness

Karen Horney

Girls desire the attention of her father and wishes to take her mother’s place

Electra Complex

Carl Jung believed that humans inherited unconscious memories/behaviors from their ancestors

Collective Unconscious

A psychological test used to test people’s unconscious desires and motives

Projective Tests

Developed by Henry Murray, it is a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Thematic Apperception Test

Hermann Rorschach designed; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Emphasizes the idea that individuals control their own behavior; believes humans are innately good

Humanistic Perspective

Reaching your full potential

Self Actualization

Going beyond fulfilling your own potential for growth and self-actualization

Self Transendence

Believed in individual’s personal growth tendencies and idea that people are naturally good

Carl Rogers

Central feature of personality, our perception of our abilities, behaviors, characteristics

Self-Concept

Be open with feelings and be your true self

Genuineness

A caring, accepting, non-judgemental attitude

Acceptance