Studied by 1 person
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. (necessary for replication)
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other.
dependent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations (variable that is manipulated)
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
double-blind experiment
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists.
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
single-blind study
study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group
random selection
A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
prefrontal cortex
part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language (Broca's area is in it's left lobe)
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.
somatosensory cortex (sensory cortex)
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
motor neuron
a neuron that sends an impulse to a muscle or gland, causing the muscle or gland to react. (part of the peripheral nervous system)
serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
Broca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.
occipital lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.
evolutional psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction
long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time.
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
basilar membrane
A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
proximity
nearness, closeness, the state of being in the vicinity of something
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.
closure
the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete (a Gestalt principal)
cocktail party effect
ability to attend to only one voice among many
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
schedules of reinforcement
different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior (FI, VI, FR, VR)
positive reinforcement
A reinforcer that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
observational learning
learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.) Bandura.
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
secondary reinforcer
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
reinforcement
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
availability heuristic
making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind
distributed practice
spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
procedural memory
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things
state-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
encoding failure
the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
source misattribution
memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory
phoneme
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
language acquisition
the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native language
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.
episodic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
imagery
Description that appeals to the senses (sight, sound, smell, touch, taste)
context dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
mnemonic
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
belief perserverancne
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).
predictive validity
the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure
practical intelligence
the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
postconventional morality
Affirms people's agreed-upon rights or follows personally perceived ethical principles.
cross-sectional study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.
longitudinal study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
authoritarian parent
a parenting style characterized by high levels of control and low levels of affection
identity v. role confusion
(12-18 years) adolescents must make the transition to adulthood, establish an identity, develop a sense of self, and consider a future occupational identity; otherwise, role confusion can result
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