Governments During the American Regime

When the Americans captured Manila on August 13, 1898, the Philippines passed from Spanish to American hands. The very next day, August 14, 1898, the United States established a Military Government. By virtue of wartime powers, the U.S. President, as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, had authority to govern the islands. This authority was delegated to the Military Governor, who exercised executive, legislative, and judicial powers as long as the war continued. The first to hold the position was General Wesley Merritt, followed by General Elwell S. Otis, and finally General Arthur MacArthur, who served as the last Military Governor. The American occupation shifted on July 4, 1901, when the Civil Government was inaugurated in Manila. Its legal basis came from the Spooner Amendment, passed by the U.S. Congress on March 3, 1901, which formally ended the military regime. A Civil Governor was appointed, with the position later renamed Governor-General in 1905. This official also served as President of the Philippine Commission, the sole legislative body from 1901 to 1907, giving him both executive and legislative power. The next stage of political development was marked by the Philippine Bill of 1902, which became the basic law of the land. It created the Philippine Assembly, a popularly elected body, giving Filipinos a role in governance for the first time under the Americans. From 1907 to 1916, the legislature became bicameral: the Philippine Commission headed by the U.S. Governor-General acted as the upper house, while the Philippine Assembly served as the lower house. During this period, the Philippines also gained representation in the United States Congress through two Resident Commissioners. These officials sat in the U.S. House of Representatives, enjoyed privileges similar to American members, but had no voting rights. A major step forward came with the Philippine Autonomy Act, more popularly called the Jones Law, enacted on August 16, 1916. This became the new organic law for the Philippines. It abolished the Philippine Commission and created an all-Filipino legislature composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Its preamble carried a crucial promise: that independence would be granted as soon as Filipinos could establish a stable government. That promise was realized in part through the Tydings–McDuffie Law, passed on March 24, 1934. This act provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines, a transitional system meant to prepare the country for full independence. The law set a ten-year transition period, after which independence would be proclaimed on July 4, 1946. The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on November 15, 1935, following the first national elections under the 1935 Constitution. Manuel L. Quezon was elected President, with Sergio Osmeña as Vice-President. The government was republican in form, patterned after the presidential system of the United States. Legislative power was initially vested in a unicameral National Assembly, but by November 1935, this was reorganized into a bicameral Congress composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Judicial power was placed in the Supreme Court and other lower courts created by law. The Commonwealth was highly autonomous. Filipinos had nearly full control of domestic affairs, while the United States reserved authority only over matters of foreign policy. The outbreak of World War II disrupted this progress. When Japanese forces occupied the Philippines, the Commonwealth Government went into exile in Washington, D.C., functioning there from May 13, 1942 to October 3, 1944. It was restored in Manila on February 27, 1945, in a symbolic ceremony at Malacañang Palace, where General Douglas MacArthur, on behalf of the United States Government, formally turned over authority to President Sergio Osmeña. From that point, the Commonwealth continued to exercise full powers under the 1935 Constitution, carrying the Philippines toward its scheduled independence in 1946.

American military rule in the Philippines began on August 14, 1898 after the capture of Manila.

When did American military rule in the Philippines begin?

The U.S. President, as Commander-in-Chief, established the Military Government in the Philippines.

Who had the power to establish the Military Government in the Philippines?

The Military Governor exercised executive, legislative, and judicial powers during wartime.

What powers did the Military Governor exercise?

The first American Military Governor was General Wesley Merritt, followed by General Elwell S. Otis, and General Arthur MacArthur.

Who were the American Military Governors in the Philippines?

The Civil Government was established in Manila on July 4, 1901 pursuant to the Spooner Amendment.

When and under what law was the Civil Government established?

The Spooner Amendment was part of the Army Appropriation Act passed by the U.S. Congress on March 3, 1901.

What law ended the Military Government in the Philippines?

The Civil Governor’s position was created on October 29, 1901 and later changed to Governor-General on February 6, 1905.

When was the Civil Governor position created and what was it later called?

The Civil Governor also acted as President of the Philippine Commission, the sole lawmaking body from 1901 to 1907.

What legislative role did the Civil Governor have?

The Philippine Bill of 1902 was the basic law of the government and created the Philippine Assembly elected by the people.

What law became the basic law of the government in 1902 and what did it create?

From 1907 to 1916, the Philippine Commission headed by the U.S. Governor-General acted as the upper house while the Philippine Assembly served as the lower house.

How was the Philippine legislature structured from 1907 to 1916?

The Philippines was represented in the U.S. House of Representatives by two Resident Commissioners without voting rights.

How was the Philippines represented in the United States Congress?

The Philippine Autonomy Act or Jones Law of August 16, 1916 became the new organic law for the Philippines.

What law replaced the Philippine Commission with an all-Filipino legislature?

The Jones Law created a legislature composed of the Philippine Senate and House of Representatives.

What legislative body was created by the Jones Law?

The preamble of the Jones Law promised independence once Filipinos established a stable government.

What did the Jones Law promise to Filipinos in its preamble?

The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines was established by the Tydings-McDuffie Law on March 24, 1934.

What law established the Commonwealth Government and when?

The Tydings-McDuffie Law provided a 10-year transition period after which independence would be proclaimed on July 4, 1946.

What transition period did the Tydings-McDuffie Law provide?

The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on November 15, 1935.

When was the Commonwealth Government inaugurated?

Manuel L. Quezon became President and Sergio Osmeña became Vice-President after the 1935 elections.

Who were the first elected leaders of the Commonwealth Government?

The Commonwealth operated under the 1935 Constitution with a presidential, republican system.

What constitution and system did the Commonwealth Government follow?

The Commonwealth’s legislature was first a unicameral National Assembly and later a bicameral Congress in November 1935.

How was legislative power structured in the Commonwealth?

Judicial power under the Commonwealth was vested in the Supreme Court and inferior courts provided by law.

Where was judicial power vested in the Commonwealth?

The Commonwealth Government was autonomous, with Filipinos controlling domestic affairs while the U.S. retained authority over foreign affairs.

How autonomous was the Commonwealth Government?

During World War II, the Commonwealth Government functioned in exile in Washington, D.C. from May 13, 1942 to October 3, 1944.

Where and when did the Commonwealth Government operate during World War II?

The Commonwealth Government was reestablished in Manila on February 27, 1945.

When was the Commonwealth Government reestablished in the Philippines?

General Douglas MacArthur restored the Commonwealth Government to President Osmeña in a ceremony at Malacañang Palace.

Who restored the Commonwealth Government and to whom?

The restored Commonwealth Government functioned under the 1935 Constitution until Philippine independence in 1946.

Under what constitution did the Commonwealth continue to operate after its restoration?